EducateSmart: Cognitive and Social Constructivism

Origin of Constructivism

Although it has become popular only recently, the origins of constructivism are believed to date back to the time of Socrates, who claimed that teachers and learners should talk with each other and interpret and construct the hidden knowledge by asking questions (Hilav, 1990, cited in Erdem, 2001). Gruber and Voneche (1977) also state that the term constructivism most probably is derived from Piaget’s “constructivist” views (1967), as well as from Bruner’s (1996) “constructivist” description of discovery learning.

Furthermore, Perkins (1992) points out that constructivism has multiple roots in psychology and philosophy of this century: the developmental perspective of Jean Piaget (1969) and the emergence of cognitive psychology under the guidance of figures like Jerome Bruner (1966).

What is constructivism?

Constructivism is a synthesis of multiple theories diffused in to one form. It is the assimilation of both behaviorialist and cognitive ideals. The “constructivist stance maintains that learning is a process of constructing meaning; it is how people make sense of their experience” (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999).

Mvududu and Thiel-Burgess (2012) state that constructivism is widely touted as an approach to probe for children’s level of understanding and to show that that understanding can increase and change to higher level thinking. Thus, constructivism refers to how of learning and thinking .Constructivism describes the way that the students can make sense of the material and also how the materials can be taught effectively. With Constructivism as an educational theory in mind, the teachers should consider what students know and allow their students to put their knowledge in to practice.

Kanselaar (2002) stated that there are two major strands of constructivist perspective, (a) constructivist perspective and (b) social-cultural perspective (Socio-constructivist perspective).

a. Cognitive constructivism, an individualistic perspective is based on the work of Swiss developmental psychologist Jean Piaget. Piaget's theory includes two major parts, a"ages and stages" component that predicts what children can and cannot understand at different ages, and a” theory of development” that describes how children develop cognitive abilities. Piaget (1977) asserts that learning does not occur passively; rather it occurs by active construction of meaning. He explains that when we, as learners, encounter an experience or a situation that challenges the way we think, a state of disequilibrium or imbalance is created. We must then alter our thinking to restore equilibrium or balance. For this purpose, we make sense of the new information by associating it with what we already know, that is, by attempting to assimilate it into our existing knowledge. When we are unable to do this, we use accommodation by restructuring our present knowledge to a higher level of thinking.

b. Social-cultural constructivism (Socio-constructivist perspective). Lev Vygotsky’s (1986-1934) main relevance to constructivism comes from his theories about language, thought, and their mediation by society. Vygotsky holds an anti-realist position and states that the process of knowing is affected by other people and is mediated by community and culture.

Overview of Cognitive Constructivism

Cognitive constructivism is based on the work of Swiss developmental psychologist Jean Piaget. Piaget's theory has two major parts: an "ages and stages" component that predicts what children can and cannot understand at different ages, and a theory of development that describes how children develop cognitive abilities. It is the theory of development that will be the focus here because it is the major foundation for cognitive constructivist approaches to teaching and learning.

Piaget's theory of cognitive development proposes that humans cannot be "given" information which they immediately understand and use. Instead, humans must "construct" their own knowledge. They build their knowledge through experience. Experiences enable them to create schemas - mental models in their heads. These schemas are changed, enlarged, and made more sophisticated through two complimentary processes: assimilation and accommodation.

Piaget's theory of constructivism argues that people produce knowledge and form meaning based upon their experiences. Piaget's theory covered learning theories, teaching methods, and education reform. Two of the key components which create the construction of an individual's new knowledge are accommodation and assimilation. Assimilating causes an individual to incorporate new experiences into the old experiences. This causes the individual to develop new outlooks, rethink what were once misunderstandings, and evaluate what is important, ultimately altering their perceptions. Accommodation, on the other hand, is reframing the world and new experiences into the mental capacity already present. Individuals conceive a particular fashion in which the world operates. When things do not operate within that context, they must accommodate and reframing the expectations with the outcomes.

Types of Instruction of Cognitive Constructivism

In a Piagetian classroom, students must be given opportunities to construct knowledge through their own experiences. They cannot be "told" by the teacher. There is less emphasis on directly teaching specific skills and more emphasis on learning in a meaningful context. Technology, particularly multimedia, offers a vast array of such opportunities. With technology support such as videodisks and CD-ROMs, teachers can provide a learning environment that helps expand the conceptual and experiential background of the reader. Although much of the educational software created in the 1970s and 1980s was based on behavioral principles, much of the new multimedia educational software is based on constructivist theories. Technology provides essential tools with which to accomplish the goals of a constructivist classroom.

Role of teachers

In the constructivist classroom, the teacher’s role is to prompt and facilitate discussion. Thus, the teacher’s main focus should be on guiding students by asking questions that will lead them to develop their own conclusions on the subject.

David Jonassen identified three major roles for facilitators to support students in constructivist learning environments:

 Modeling

 Coaching

 Scaffolding[

Constructivist teaching and learning requires that students make meaning by:

1. using higher order thinking skills

2. showing depth of knowledge (not covering the curriculum)

3. understanding and making connections to the world beyond the classroom

4. engaging in substantive conversation and discussion

Characteristics of a Cognitive Constructivist Approach

Learners construct their own knowledge beginning with what they already
know, exploring what needs to be known next and determining the quality
and effectiveness of their pursuit through authentic assessment and
application.

All learning begins in doubt about the validity of an idea. The goal of doubt
is the restoration of belief. (Pierce, James).

Learning takes place in the personal zone of cognitive development between
what is already known, what is not known and what is desired to be known
(Vygotsky).

Learning is best achieved when the undertaking is consistent with the stages
of human development (Rousseau, Piaget).

Learning is an experience based process of inquiring, discovering, exploring,
doing and undergoing (Dewey).

General Implications of Cognitive Constructivism

There are two key Piagetian principles for teaching and learning:

Learning is an active process: Direct experience, making errors, and looking for solutions are vital for the assimilation and accommodation of information. How information is presented is important. When information is introduced as an aid to problem solving, it functions as a tool rather than an isolated arbitrary fact.

Learning should be whole, authentic, and "real": Piaget helps us to understand that meaning is constructed as children interact in meaningful ways with the world around them. Thus, That means less emphasis on isolated "skill" exercises that try to teach something like long division or end of sentence punctuation. Students still learn these things in Piagetian classrooms, but they are more likely to learn them if they are engaged in meaningful activities (such as operating a class "store" or "bank" or writing and editing a class newspaper). Whole activities, as opposed to isolated skill exercises, authentic activities which are inherently interesting and meaningful to the student, and real activities that result in something other than a grade on a test or a "Great, you did well" from the computer lesson software, are emphasized in Piagetian classrooms.

Social Constructivism

Social constructivism emphasizes the importance of culture and context in understanding what occurs in society and constructing knowledge based on this understanding.

This perspective is closely associated with many contemporary theories, most notably the developmental theories of Vygotsky and Bruner, and Bandura's social cognitive theory (Shunk, 2000).

Overview of Social Constructivism

Another cognitive psychologist, Lev Vygotsky shared many of assumptions about how children learn, but he placed more emphasis on the social context of learning. Piaget's cognitive theories have been used as the foundation for discovery learning models in which the teacher plays a limited role. In Vygotsky's theories both teachers and older or more experienced children play very important roles in learning.

There is a great deal of overlap between cognitive constructivism and Vygotsky's social constructivist theory. However, Vygotsky's constructivist theory, which is often called social constructivism, has much more room for an active, involved teacher. For Vygotsky the culture gives the child the cognitive tools needed for development. The type and quality of those tools determines, to a much greater extent than they do in Piaget's theory, the pattern and rate of development. Adults such as parents and teachers are conduits for the tools of the culture, including language. The tools the culture provides a child include cultural history, social context, and language. Today they also include electronic forms of information access.

We call Vygotsky's brand of constructivism social constructivism because he emphasized the critical importance of culture and the importance of the social context for cognitive development. Vygotsky's the zone of proximal development is probably his best-known concept. It argues that students can, with help from adults or children who are more advanced, master concepts and ideas that they cannot understand on their own.

Assumptions of Social Constructivism

Social constructivism is based on specific assumptions about reality, knowledge, and learning. To understand and apply models of instruction that are rooted in the perspectives of social constructivists, it is important to know the premises that underlie them.

Reality: Social constructivists believe that reality is constructed through human activity. Members of a society together invent the properties of the world (Kukla, 2000). For the social constructivist, reality cannot be discovered: it does not exist prior to its social invention.

Knowledge: To social constructivists, knowledge is also a human product, and is socially and culturally constructed (Ernest, 1999; Gredler, 1997; Prat & Floden, 1994). Individuals create meaning through their interactions with each other and with the environment they live in.

Learning: Social constructivists view learning as a social process. It does not take place only within an individual, nor is it a passive development of behaviors that are shaped by external forces (McMahon, 1997). Meaningful learning occurs when individuals are engaged in social activities.

General Implications of Social Constructivism

If Vygotsky is correct and children develop in social or group settings, the use of technology to connect rather than separate students from one another would be very appropriate use.

A constructivist teacher creates a context for learning in which students can become engaged in interesting activities that encourages and facilitates learning. The teacher does not simply stand by, however, and watch children explore and discover. Instead, the teacher may often guide students as they approach problems, may encourage them to work in groups to think about issues and questions, and support them with encouragement and advice as they tackle problems, adventures, and challenges that are rooted in real life situations that are both interesting to the students and satisfying in terms of the result of their work. Teachers thus facilitate cognitive growth and learning as do peers and other members of the child's community.

All classrooms in which instructional strategies compatible with Vygotsky's social constructivist approach are used don't necessarily look alike. The activities and the format can vary considerably. However, four principles are applied in any Vygotskian classroom.

1) Learning and development is a social, collaborative activity.

2) The Zone of Proximal Development can serve as a guide for curricular and lesson planning.

3) School learning should occur in a meaningful context and not be separated from learning and knowledge children develop in the "real world.".

4) Out-of-school experiences should be related to the child's school experience.

Social Constructivism in the classroom

Reciprocal Teaching

Where a teacher and 2 to 4 students form a collaborative group and take turns leading dialogues on a topic. Within the dialogues, group members apply four cognitive strategies:

Questioning
Summarizing
Clarifying
Predicting

This creates a ZPD in which students gradually assume more responsibility for the material, and through collaboratation, forge group expectations for high-level thinking, and acquire skills vital for learning and success in everyday life.

Cooperative Learning

More expert peers can also spur children’s development along as long as they adjust the help they provide to fit the less mature child’s ZPD.

Situated Learning

As early as 1929 concern was raised (Whitehead) that the way students learned in school resulted in a limited, ‘inert’ form of knowledge, useful only for passing examinations. More recently several theorists have argued that for knowledge to be active it should be learned:

In a meaningful context
Through active learning

The general term for this type of learning activity is situated learning. Situated learning proponents argue that knowledge cannot be taught in an abstract manner, and that to be useful, it must be situated in a relevant or "authentic" context (Maddux, Johnson, & Willis, 1997).

Anchored Instruction

The anchored instruction approach is an attempt to help students become more actively engaged in learning by situating or anchoring instruction around an interesting topic. The learning environments are designed to provoke the kinds of thoughtful engagement that helps students develop effective thinking skills and attitudes that contribute to effective problem solving and critical thinking.

Anchored instruction emphasizes the need to provide students with opportunities to think about and work on problems and emphasizes group or collaborative problem solving.

Other things you can do:

Encourage team working and collaboration
Promote discussion or debates
Set up study groups for peer learning
Allocate a small proportion of grades for peer assessment and train students in the process and criteria
Show students models of good practice in essay writing and project work
Be aware of your own role as a model of ‘the way things are done...’be explicit about your professional values and the ethical dimensions of your subject