Course: 107 Pedagogy of science

Nature and Scope of science
Introduction: 
The nature of general science refers to key principles and ideas which provide a description of Science as a way of knowing, as well as characteristics of scientific knowledge. Although scientific knowledge is supported by lot of data, scientists continuously test and challenge previous findings in Science. Thus idea of fundamental uncertainty is vital to scientific studies and is the basis of great scientific discoveries. Therefore it is very important to study dynamic nature of Science. It offers the answers to various questions, we ask out of curiosity. Science subject is so vast with various branches and sub-branches and its study develops various skills in students.
Science is an attempt to explain natural phenomena. While durable. it has also a tentative character, Scientific knowledge is derived from observation of the natural world. General Science is a branch of knowledge or study dealing with a body of facts or truths systematically arranged.

Being vast in nature, it is generally taught under different headings or branches. The collective form of various branches of Science is generally known as General Science. Through the study of General Science, students can learn importance of Science in day to day life as well as role of Science in individual, social and national development.

Meaning
      Science word is derived from Latin word ‘scientia' means knowledge. a) Science is a method of acquiring knowledge. b) Science is a study of living things, nonliving things or event. c) Science 'is a direction of thinking, a way and attitude of looking at a problem, a tool to solve the problem and production of invention. d) D. Rooler : Science is man’s attempt to explain natural phenomena. E) Arthur Clark: Science in the purest form is the simple extension of human curiosity.
F) Green : Science is a way of conducting investigation.

Nature of Science
Scrence is dynamic.
Science is flexible.
Science is objective and impersonal.
It is dual in nature. it is not just content. Science is content plus process. Therefore nature of science can best be described under tollowmg headings: a) Science as a body of knowledge. b) The process of science.
A) Science as a Body of Knowledge: The body of scientific knowledge can be classified into science facts, concepts, generalizations. scientific laws and theories. They form the structure of science.
(1)Scientific Facts:
Scientific facts are the statement that indicates real description of an object incident or occurrence. Fact is the answer of ‘what is it?‘ facts are useful to taking decisions but not useful for drawing conclusions. Example: Earth revolves around the sun.

2) Scientific Concepts:
These are the categories that are formed and based upon those characteristics
and attributes which are essential to a particular classification.
Example: Density of a body is its mass per unit volume. 3) Generalisations :
It is the meaningful conclusions regarding the scientific facts. Example: All bodies are attracted by the earth.
Facts, concepts and generalisations are inter-related and inter-dependent. The fact gives rise to concept while concepts give rise to generalization.
4) Scientific Laws :
It is a factual statement of what all way happens in certain circumstance. lt is a broad generalisation.
Example: Law of floatation.
B) Science as Process : 
Science is a method of discovery and learning. Mankind continuously seeks the answer to important questions using the process of scientific inquiry. The process science is the scientific method applied to find out solution of the problem. Following
are the science processes. Scientist works. thinks and studies problems using these processes.
1) Observation : identifying and describing the characteristics and properties of objects or events using five sense organs.
2) Classification :
it is the process of sorting objects or events into groups according to mi similarities and differences.
3)Number Relation and Measurement :
It is to compare unknown quantity with known quantity. It requires use of tools to make precise or specific information with numbers.
4)Making Inference :
It is the use of information from observations to make reasonable early conclusions i.e. realising ideas which are not directly observable. Thus it is the process of suggesting more information about an object or event than is readily observable.
5)Predictions :
Making best guesses i.e. based on data and past experiences suitable predictions are made.
6)Communication :
Collecting and organising data encompasses communication skills. it is a process of receiving, spreading and sharing of information and ideas.
7)Controlling Variables :
Identifying variable in an investigation i.e. independent variable which is decided by researcher, dependent variable which changes according to independent variable and controlled variable, which is constant throughout the investigation 9.9. in investigating how a weight affects the length of an elastic band, weight is independent variable, Length of band is dependent variable and using same band and measuring scale etc are controlled variables.
8)Formulating Hypotheses :
it is formalised statement of an idea based on observation and inferences i..e. probable answer of the problem.

Scope and Place of Science:
Due to recommendations of Kothari commission (1964-66) science become compulsory subject at school. According to 1986 education policy, place of science in school curriculum is as follows: 1) Primary Level (1st to 5th Standard) : At this level science is included as environmental science (EVS). 2) Higher Primary Level (6th to 8the Standard) : lmportance is given for doing experiments. projects etc. 3) Secondary Level (9th and 10th Standard) : Very deep knowledge of science is suggested at this level. Scientific information, concepts. laws, principles are explained at this level and also performation of experiment and logical thinking development are suggested. 4) Higher Secondary Stage (11th and 12th Standard) : Importance is given to theoretical as well as practical work.
     Curriculum is made in such a way that students can get vocational guidance after the learning science as subject is universal and knows no boundaries.

Objectives of General Science at Secondary and Higher Secondary 
The most effective teaching is that which results in the most effective learning. To make teaching effective, its planning should be done perfectly. For perfect planning of teaching, teacher should know which the different objectives of teaching are. Therefore for the effective planning of Science teaching, teachers must know objectives of General Science.


Objectives of General Science at secondary level: Following are some objectives of General Science at secondary level:

1) To help the students to enhance the knowledge in primary level.
2) To help the students to understand concepts. principles and laws in science.
3) To help the students to develop communication skills, problem solving skill etc.
4) To develop scientific attitude in students i.e., free mindedness. intellectual honesty, curiosity etc.
5) To develop personal and social life of student Le. to help the students to inculcate social, moral and cultural values. 3) To help the student to develop sensitivity towards environment protection.
7) To enable them to investigate scientific phenomenon rather than just verifying known conclusions.
8) T0 make students creative.

Objectives of General Science at higher secondary level: 
Following are some objectives of General Science at secondary level:
1) To develop such abilities in students by which they can understand the influence of developments taking place in science and technology on modern world by which they can adjust themselves in accordance with the changes taking place in the society.
2) To make students able to understand importance of various scientific principles and theories and to apply them in their daily life to sort out various problems.
3) To provide historical perspective to the students by which they can understand the evolution of scientific developments.
4) To provide such kind of information to students that they can earn their livelihood in the future.
5) To orient them to apply science and technology in agriculture, medicine, research and industry.
6) To develop the competency in students to apply scientific knowledge to solve the problems around them.

Curriculum and Syllabus of General Science at Secondary and Higher secondary level
Curriculum and syllabus these two concepts are different from each other. Syllabus is focused towards a particular subject while curriculum is related to the all-round development of student. Syllabus is prepared for a fixed term, normally a year. Thus, it is with narrow scope while scope of curriculum is wide and it is prepared for whole course. Syllabus serves as a guide to student as well as teacher. It helps to know about the subject in detail. Curriculum is aimed at both physical and mental development of student. it is the overall learning experience that a student gets through during the particular course of study. In short, syllabus of general Science is described as summarisation of the topics covered under Science subject, while curriculum refers to overall content and activities in a course.

Curriculum meaning:
1) Kerr(1968): "Aall the activities which are planned and guided by the school, whether they are carried out in groups or individually, inside and outside the school are curriculum."
2) Munro : ”Curriculum includes all the types of learning experiences used in school for curriculum Meaning: “achieving the educational goals. "
3) Morre : “Curriculum includes all those activities which are utilized by the school to attain the aims of education. "
”Curriculum is the store of all the experiences which a learner acquired under the control of school. ” The term curriculum has been derived from a Latin word ‘currere' which means a "race course’ or a runway on which one runs to reach a goal. In the same way, a curriculum is the instructional and educative programme by following which: the pupils achieve their goals, ideals and aspirations of Iife. It is the curriculum through which the general aims of a school education receive concrete expression. Initially curriculum was subject centered while now-a-days it is child and life centered.

Principal of curriculum construction:
The content of curriculum is determined on the basis of some academic principles Which are stated below:
1) Aims and Objectives of Education : Curriculum should be useful to achieve aims and objectives of education.
2) Child-centered : Curriculum should be framed according to the actual needs, interests and capacities of the child.
3) Principle of Civic and Social Needs : It should be framed in such a way that it will focus on individual as well as social needs.
4) Principle of Activity: it should be activity centered.
5)Principle of Creativity: it should help individuals to develop his innate potentialities.
6)Principle of Forward-looking : it should prepare the child for shouldering future responsibilities.
7) Principle of Flexibility : it should be flexible enough according to surroundings.
8) Principle of integration and Correlation : Subjects should be arranged logically and psychologically in accordance with the child’s developing needs.
9) Principle of learning Ability and its Utility: Every topic should be learnt and it should also have utility.
10) Principle of individual Differences : it should be based on psychology of individual differences and should be framed in such a way that every individual can have opportunity for self-expression and development.
11) Principle of Utilization of Leisure : Variety of subjects such as games and spans. tine arts are subjects of aesthetic value. These subjects should be introduced in the school programme to utilize leisure.
12) Principle of Variety : Along with content, there should be scope for co-curricuiar activities.

Educational Research

What is Educational Research?

A cyclical process of steps that typically begins with identifying a research problem or issue of study. It then involves reviewing the literature, specifying a purpose for the study, collecting and analyzing data, and forming an interpretation of information. This process culminates in a report, disseminated to audiences, that is evaluated and used in the educational community. (Creswell, 2002)

Meaning of Educational Research

Educational Research as nothing but cleansing of educational Research is nothing but cleansing of educational process. Many experts think Educational Research as under- According to Mouly, ―Educational Research is the systematic application of scientific method for solving for solving educational problem.

Travers thinks, ―Educational Research is the activity for developing science of behavior in educational situations. It allows the educator to achieve his goals effectively.

 According to Whitney, ―Educational Research aims at finding out solution of educational problems by using scientific philosophical method.

Thus, Educational Research is to solve educational problem in systematic and scientific manner, it is to understand, explain, predict and control human behaviour.

Characteristics of Educational Research

-    It is highly purposeful.

- It deals with educational problems regarding students and teachers as well.

- It is precise, objective, scientific and systematic process of investigation.

- It attempts to organize data quantitatively and qualitatively to arrive at statistical inferences.

- It discovers new facts in new perspective. i. e. It generates new knowledge.

- It is based on some philosophic theory.

- It depends on the researchers ability, ingenuity and experience for its interpretation and conclusions.

- It needs interdisciplinary approach for solving educational problem.

-    It demands subjective interpretation and deductive reasoning in some cases.

- It uses classrooms, schools, colleges department of education as the laboratory for conducting researches.

Need of Educational Research

Educators need to be consumers (and producers) of research. Creswell (2002) notes the following reasons, describing the various purposes of educational research:

1. Improve Practice

Research can suggest ways of improving practice that have been verified with many applications and by many different types of people, which is difficult for practitioners.

2. Add to Knowledge

Research can add to what we know about how people learn and what we can do help facilitate the learning process.

3. Address Gaps in Knowledge

Research can address areas in which little is know, like perhaps the effects of online versus traditional classroom learning.

4. Expand Knowledge

Research can allow us to extend what we know in ways we never conceived.

5. Replicate Knowledge

Research can act as a test to verify previous findings.

6. Add Voices of Individuals to Knowledge

Research can add an important perspective for different learning types. Much of the educational research prior to the Eighties is based on able, white, middle-to-upper class males. This is certainly not reflective of our increasingly heterogeneous students, and research helps revise theory and practice to reflect different student needs.

course: 124 Introduction to Educational Research

Research - Its Meaning and Definitions

Etymologically, the word ‘Research’ is derived from the French word ‘recherché’ which means ‘to seek again’.

Although human beings have not yet devised any perfect method of finding solutions to their problems found worthy of investigation, there is a general transition from acquiring knowledge based on customs, tradition, culture, authority and experience to the use of research incorporating the scientific method.

Research is a systematic attempt at seeking answers to meaningful questions about events, processes or phenomena through the application of the scientific method. In other words, research is a formal, logical, methodical and rigorous process aimed at discovering new knowledge and solving problems.

The advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English defines research as “a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.”

According to Kerlinger, “Scientific research is empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena.”

On the other hand, Redman and Mory define research in a simplistic manner as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.” This is one of the earlier definitions of research.

Young defines social research as “the systematic method of discovering new facts or verifying old facts, their sequences, interrelationships, causal explanations and the natural laws which govern them.”‘.

Based on the preceding definitions, it may be said that research is an academic activity aimed at making original contribution to the available stock of knowledge thereby leading to progress and advancement. Research enables an individual to comprehend reality through a logical array of processed data and information. This is very clear from the definition of research as “a studious inquiry or examination, especially a critical and exhaustive investigation or experimentation having for its aim the discovery of new facts and their correct interpretation, the revision of accepted conclusions, theories or laws in the light of newly discovered facts or the practical application of such conclusions, theories or laws.” This definition implies that there is no research without discovery of new knowledge.

Need of Research as a Scientific Activity
Need of research can be as follows:

1.      It contributes to systematic and scientific development of new theories, laws and principles, i.e. creation of new knowledge in the academic discipline of education.

2.      It helps in testing existing theories and modifying them if necessary.

3.      To determining and describing the past and the present status of phenomena.

4.      Its purpose is to trace growth, developmental history, change and status of certain phenomena.

5.      It helps in ascertaining the nature, composition and processes that characterize selected events or phenomena.

6.      It is aimed at solving problems faced by practitioners in the field of education including teachers and principals.

7.      To prediction and ultimate control of events.

8.      It contributes to creating educational policies.

9.      Its purpose can be to study the cause-and-effect relationships among
and between certain phenomena.

10.  It is aimed at providing explanation of phenomena.

11.  Its purpose can include programme evaluation and improvement.

12.  It can be undertaken to understand events, processes, structure of phenomena and gain knowledge for its own sake. i.e. for intellectual curiosity.

Characteristics of Research
Characteristics of research are as follows:

1)      It is directed towards the solution of a problem. It therefore has specific goals.

2)       It is aimed at developing principles, laws, theories and generalizations to predict future occurrences. For example, if a researcher generalizes that school climate has a positive relationship with job satisfaction of teachers, it may be possible to predict that if the climate of a particular school is conducive, the job satisfaction of teachers in that school is expected to be high.

3)       It is based on observation, experience and experiments i.e. on empirical evidence. It is not based on conceptual or speculative thoughts of an individual.

4)      It requires accurate observation and description of phenomena, events, processes or structure. These observations and descriptions could be measured using quantitative measuring devices or qualitative verbal, in-depth narrations.

5)      It is based on the works of others i.e. on prior conceptual and empirical literature.

6)      It requires expertise. The researcher needs to know the existing subject-matter on the topic and how others have studied this topic in the past. This knowledge can be acquired through a review of related literature.

7)      It answers unsolved questions in an original manner, i.e. a good research study is original in nature and not a mere repetition of what others have done. However, sometimes, previously conducted studies can be replicated (repeated) deliberately using similar procedures on different samples, in different settings and at a different time. This could be done so as to confirm previous findings or to raise questions about the findings of a prior study. Sometimes
it is conducted to study the changes in the phenomena.

8)      It involves collecting new data from primary or first-hand sources. However, it may also use existing secondary data collected by other researchers to answer new questions. More reorganization of rearrangement of already known facts cannot be termed as research.

9)      It is an objective, rational, unbiased and logical activity. The researcher attempts to eliminate his/her personal bias in selecting the sample, collecting data, analyzing and interpreting findings.

10)  It uses carefully designed procedures, reliable and valid tools, unbiased and representative samples and applies rigorous analysis to data.

11)   It needs to be recorded and reported carefully. The report needs to carry definition of important terms, details of tools, sample and methods, references and objectively arrived at conclusions. These need to be reported with scholarly caution and in an un-emotional manner. Findings should not contain value judgments.

12)   Reporting and publishing research findings sometimes necessitate courage. For example, if an agency gives financial aid to a researcher for evaluating a programme being conducted and if the researcher finds the programme to be of poor quality the researcher needs to report the findings without fear (even if it implies that next time he / she will not get research grant or assignment from the agency).

13)  Research can be replicated.

14)  Its findings can be generalized to other settings.

15)  It is incremental in nature. i.e. each research study makes some contribution to existing body of knowledge and leads to further research.

16)  It is cyclic in nature as it generates new questions.

17)   It should be confined for the benefit and improvement of society.

  

Research Cycle

The various steps involved in the research process can be summarized as shown in figure.

Let us now try to understand this process with the help of an example.

Step 1: Identifying the Gap in Knowledge

The researcher, based on experience and observation realizes that some students in the class do not perform well in the examination. Therefore, he / she pose an unanswered question: “Which factors are associated with students’ academic performance?”

Step 2: Identifying the Antecedent Causes

Based on experience, observation and a review of related literature, he / she realize that students who are either very anxious or not at all anxious do not perform well in the examination. Thus, he / she identify anxiety as one of the factors that could be associated with students’
academic performance.

Step 3: Stating the Goals

The researcher now states the goals of the study:

       I. To ascertain the relationship of anxiety with academic performance
      of students.

    II.To ascertain the gender differences in the anxiety and academic performance of students. .

 III.To ascertain the gender difference in the relationship of anxiety with academic performance    

  of students. ’

Step 4: Formulating Hypotheses

The researcher may state his / her hypotheses as follows:

1. There is a significant relationship between anxiety and academic performance of students.
2. There is a significant gender difference in the anxiety and academic performance of students.
3. There is n significant gender difference in the relationship of anxiety with academic performance of students.

Step 5: Collecting Relevant Information

The researcher uses appropriate tools and techniques to measure anxiety and academic performance of students, selects a sample of students and collects data from them.

Step 6: Testing the Hypotheses

He / she now use appropriate statistical techniques to verify and test the hypotheses of the study stated in Step 4.

Step 7: Interpreting the Findings

He / she interpret the findings in terms of whether the relationship between anxiety and academic performance is positive or negative, linear or curvilinear. He/she finds that this relationship is curvilinear i.e. when a student’s anxiety is either very low or very high, his / her academic performance is found to be low. However, when a student’s anxiety is moderate, his/her academic performance is found to be high. He/she now tries to explain this finding based on logic and creativity.

Step 8: Comparing the Findings with prior researchers’ Findings

At this step, the researcher tries to find out whether his/her conclusion matches those of the prior researchers or not. If not, then the researcher attempts to find out why conclusions do not match with other researchers by analyzing prior studies further.

Step 9: Modifying Theory

Based on steps 7 and 8, the researcher speculates that anxiety alone cannot influence academic performance of students. There could be a third factor, which influences the relationship between anxiety and academic performance of students. This third factor could be study habits of students. For instance, students who have very low level of anxiety may have neglected their studies throughout the year and hence their academic performance is poor. On the other hand, students who have very high level of anxiety may not be able to remember what they have learnt or cannot concentrate on studies due to stress or may fall sick very often and hence cannot study properly. Hence, their academic performance is poor. However, students with a moderate level of anxiety are motivated enough to study regularly and systematically all through the year and
hence their academic performance is high. Thus, the loosely structured theory on students academic performance need to incorporate one more variable, namely, study habits of students. In other words, it needs to be modified.

Step 10: Asking New Questions

Do study habits and anxiety interact with each other and influence academic performance of students? i.e. we can now start with a fresh topic of research involving three variables rather than two.