Origin of Constructivism
Although it has
become popular only recently, the origins of constructivism are believed to
date back to the time of Socrates, who claimed that teachers and learners
should talk with each other and interpret and construct the hidden knowledge by
asking questions (Hilav, 1990, cited in Erdem, 2001). Gruber and Voneche (1977)
also state that the term constructivism most probably is derived from Piaget’s
“constructivist” views (1967), as well as from Bruner’s (1996) “constructivist”
description of discovery learning.
Furthermore,
Perkins (1992) points out that constructivism has multiple roots in psychology
and philosophy of this century: the developmental perspective of Jean Piaget
(1969) and the emergence of cognitive psychology under the guidance of figures
like Jerome Bruner (1966).
What
is constructivism?
Constructivism is a synthesis of
multiple theories diffused in to one form. It is the assimilation of both
behaviorialist and cognitive ideals. The “constructivist stance maintains that
learning is a process of constructing meaning; it is how people make sense of
their experience” (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999).
Mvududu
and Thiel-Burgess (2012) state that constructivism is widely touted as an
approach to probe for children’s level of understanding and to show that that
understanding can increase and change to higher level thinking. Thus,
constructivism refers to how of learning and thinking .Constructivism describes
the way that the students can make sense of the material and also how the
materials can be taught effectively. With Constructivism as an educational
theory in mind, the teachers should consider what students know and allow their
students to put their knowledge in to practice.
Kanselaar
(2002) stated that there are two major strands of constructivist perspective,
(a) constructivist perspective and (b) social-cultural perspective
(Socio-constructivist perspective).
a.
Cognitive
constructivism, an individualistic perspective is based on the work of Swiss
developmental psychologist Jean Piaget. Piaget's theory includes two major
parts, a"ages and stages" component that predicts what children can
and cannot understand at different ages, and a” theory of development” that
describes how children develop cognitive abilities. Piaget (1977) asserts that
learning does not occur passively; rather it occurs by active construction of meaning.
He explains that when we, as learners, encounter an experience or a situation
that challenges the way we think, a state of disequilibrium or imbalance is
created. We must then alter our thinking to restore equilibrium or balance. For
this purpose, we make sense of the new information by associating it with what
we already know, that is, by attempting to assimilate it into our existing
knowledge. When we are unable to do this, we use accommodation by restructuring
our present knowledge to a higher level of thinking.
b.
Social-cultural constructivism (Socio-constructivist perspective). Lev
Vygotsky’s (1986-1934) main relevance to constructivism comes from his theories
about language, thought, and their mediation by society. Vygotsky holds an
anti-realist position and states that the process of knowing is affected by
other people and is mediated by community and culture.
Overview of Cognitive
Constructivism
Cognitive
constructivism is based on the work of Swiss developmental psychologist Jean
Piaget. Piaget's theory has two major parts: an "ages and stages" component
that predicts what children can and cannot understand at different ages, and a
theory of development that describes how children develop cognitive abilities.
It is the theory of development that will be the focus here because it is the
major foundation for cognitive constructivist approaches to teaching and
learning.
Piaget's
theory of cognitive development proposes that humans cannot be
"given" information which they immediately understand and use.
Instead, humans must "construct" their own knowledge. They build
their knowledge through experience. Experiences enable them to create schemas -
mental models in their heads. These schemas are changed, enlarged, and made
more sophisticated through two complimentary processes: assimilation and
accommodation.
Piaget's
theory of constructivism argues that people produce knowledge and form meaning
based upon their experiences. Piaget's theory covered learning theories,
teaching methods, and education reform. Two of the key components which create
the construction of an individual's new knowledge are accommodation and
assimilation. Assimilating causes an individual to incorporate new experiences
into the old experiences. This causes the individual to develop new outlooks,
rethink what were once misunderstandings, and evaluate what is important,
ultimately altering their perceptions. Accommodation, on the other hand, is
reframing the world and new experiences into the mental capacity already
present. Individuals conceive a particular fashion in which the world operates.
When things do not operate within that context, they must accommodate and
reframing the expectations with the outcomes.
Types of Instruction
of Cognitive Constructivism
In a Piagetian
classroom, students must be given opportunities to construct knowledge through
their own experiences. They cannot be "told" by the teacher. There is
less emphasis on directly teaching specific skills and more emphasis on
learning in a meaningful context. Technology, particularly multimedia, offers a
vast array of such opportunities. With technology support such as videodisks
and CD-ROMs, teachers can provide a learning environment that helps expand the
conceptual and experiential background of the reader. Although much of the
educational software created in the 1970s and 1980s was based on behavioral
principles, much of the new multimedia educational software is based on
constructivist theories. Technology provides essential tools with which to
accomplish the goals of a constructivist classroom.
Role of teachers
In the constructivist
classroom, the teacher’s role is to prompt and facilitate discussion. Thus, the
teacher’s main focus should be on guiding students by asking questions that
will lead them to develop their own conclusions on the subject.
David Jonassen
identified three major roles for facilitators to support students in constructivist
learning environments:
Modeling
Coaching
Scaffolding[
Constructivist teaching
and learning requires that students make meaning by:
1. using higher order
thinking skills
2. showing depth of
knowledge (not covering the curriculum)
3. understanding and
making connections to the world beyond the classroom
4. engaging in
substantive conversation and discussion
Characteristics of a Cognitive
Constructivist Approach
Learners construct
their own knowledge beginning with what they already
know, exploring what needs to be known next and determining the quality
and effectiveness of their pursuit through authentic assessment and
application.
know, exploring what needs to be known next and determining the quality
and effectiveness of their pursuit through authentic assessment and
application.
All learning begins in
doubt about the validity of an idea. The goal of doubt
is the restoration of belief. (Pierce, James).
is the restoration of belief. (Pierce, James).
Learning takes place in
the personal zone of cognitive development between
what is already known, what is not known and what is desired to be known
(Vygotsky).
what is already known, what is not known and what is desired to be known
(Vygotsky).
Learning is best
achieved when the undertaking is consistent with the stages
of human development (Rousseau, Piaget).
of human development (Rousseau, Piaget).
Learning is an
experience based process of inquiring, discovering, exploring,
doing and undergoing (Dewey).
doing and undergoing (Dewey).
General Implications of
Cognitive Constructivism
There are two key
Piagetian principles for teaching and learning:
Learning is an active
process: Direct experience, making errors, and looking for
solutions are vital for the assimilation and accommodation of information. How
information is presented is important. When information is introduced as an aid
to problem solving, it functions as a tool rather than an isolated arbitrary
fact.
Learning should be
whole, authentic, and "real": Piaget helps us to
understand that meaning is constructed as children interact in meaningful ways
with the world around them. Thus, That means less emphasis on isolated
"skill" exercises that try to teach something like long division or
end of sentence punctuation. Students still learn these things in Piagetian classrooms,
but they are more likely to learn them if they are engaged in meaningful
activities (such as operating a class "store" or "bank" or
writing and editing a class newspaper). Whole activities, as opposed to
isolated skill exercises, authentic activities which are inherently interesting
and meaningful to the student, and real activities that result in something
other than a grade on a test or a "Great, you did well" from the
computer lesson software, are emphasized in Piagetian classrooms.
Social Constructivism
Social constructivism
emphasizes the importance of culture and context in understanding what occurs
in society and constructing knowledge based on this understanding.
This perspective is
closely associated with many contemporary theories, most notably the
developmental theories of Vygotsky and Bruner, and Bandura's social cognitive
theory (Shunk, 2000).
Overview of Social
Constructivism
Another cognitive
psychologist, Lev Vygotsky shared many of assumptions about how children learn,
but he placed more emphasis on the social context of learning. Piaget's
cognitive theories have been used as the foundation for discovery learning models
in which the teacher plays a limited role. In Vygotsky's theories both teachers
and older or more experienced children play very important roles in learning.
There is a great deal
of overlap between cognitive constructivism and Vygotsky's social
constructivist theory. However, Vygotsky's constructivist theory, which is
often called social constructivism, has much more room for an active, involved
teacher. For Vygotsky the culture gives the child the cognitive tools needed
for development. The type and quality of those tools determines, to a much
greater extent than they do in Piaget's theory, the pattern and rate of
development. Adults such as parents and teachers are conduits for the tools of
the culture, including language. The tools the culture provides a child include
cultural history, social context, and language. Today they also include
electronic forms of information access.
We call Vygotsky's
brand of constructivism social constructivism because he emphasized the
critical importance of culture and the importance of the social context for
cognitive development. Vygotsky's the zone of proximal development is probably
his best-known concept. It argues that students can, with help from adults or
children who are more advanced, master concepts and ideas that they cannot
understand on their own.
Assumptions of Social
Constructivism
Social constructivism
is based on specific assumptions about reality, knowledge, and learning. To
understand and apply models of instruction that are rooted in the perspectives
of social constructivists, it is important to know the premises that underlie
them.
Reality:
Social constructivists believe that reality is constructed through human
activity. Members of a society together invent the properties of the world
(Kukla, 2000). For the social constructivist, reality cannot be discovered: it
does not exist prior to its social invention.
Knowledge:
To social constructivists, knowledge is also a human product, and is socially
and culturally constructed (Ernest, 1999; Gredler, 1997; Prat & Floden,
1994). Individuals create meaning through their interactions with each other
and with the environment they live in.
Learning:
Social constructivists view learning as a social process. It does not take
place only within an individual, nor is it a passive development of behaviors
that are shaped by external forces (McMahon, 1997). Meaningful learning occurs
when individuals are engaged in social activities.
General Implications
of Social Constructivism
If Vygotsky is correct
and children develop in social or group settings, the use of technology to
connect rather than separate students from one another would be very
appropriate use.
A constructivist
teacher creates a context for learning in which students can become engaged in
interesting activities that encourages and facilitates learning. The teacher
does not simply stand by, however, and watch children explore and discover.
Instead, the teacher may often guide students as they approach problems, may
encourage them to work in groups to think about issues and questions, and
support them with encouragement and advice as they tackle problems, adventures,
and challenges that are rooted in real life situations that are both
interesting to the students and satisfying in terms of the result of their
work. Teachers thus facilitate cognitive growth and learning as do peers and
other members of the child's community.
All classrooms in which
instructional strategies compatible with Vygotsky's social constructivist
approach are used don't necessarily look alike. The activities and the format
can vary considerably. However, four principles are applied in any Vygotskian
classroom.
1)
Learning and development is a social,
collaborative activity.
2)
The Zone of Proximal Development can
serve as a guide for curricular and lesson planning.
3)
School learning should occur in a
meaningful context and not be separated from learning and knowledge children develop
in the "real world.".
4)
Out-of-school experiences should be
related to the child's school experience.
Social Constructivism
in the classroom
Reciprocal Teaching
Where a teacher and 2
to 4 students form a collaborative group and take turns leading dialogues on a
topic. Within the dialogues, group members apply four cognitive strategies:
- Questioning
- Summarizing
- Clarifying
- Predicting
This creates a ZPD in
which students gradually assume more responsibility for the material, and
through collaboratation, forge group expectations for high-level thinking, and
acquire skills vital for learning and success in everyday life.
Cooperative Learning
More expert peers can
also spur children’s development along as long as they adjust the help they
provide to fit the less mature child’s ZPD.
Situated Learning
As early as 1929
concern was raised (Whitehead) that the way students learned in school resulted
in a limited, ‘inert’ form of knowledge, useful only for passing examinations.
More recently several theorists have argued that for knowledge to be active it
should be learned:
- In a meaningful context
- Through active learning
The general term for this
type of learning activity is situated learning. Situated learning proponents
argue that knowledge cannot be taught in an abstract manner, and that to be
useful, it must be situated in a relevant or "authentic" context (Maddux,
Johnson, & Willis, 1997).
Anchored Instruction
The anchored
instruction approach is an attempt to help students become more actively
engaged in learning by situating or anchoring instruction around an interesting
topic. The learning environments are designed to provoke the kinds of
thoughtful engagement that helps students develop effective thinking skills and
attitudes that contribute to effective problem solving and critical thinking.
Anchored instruction
emphasizes the need to provide students with opportunities to think about and
work on problems and emphasizes group or collaborative problem solving.
Other things you can
do:
- Encourage team working and collaboration
- Promote discussion or debates
- Set up study groups for peer learning
- Allocate a small proportion of grades for peer assessment and train students in the process and criteria
- Show students models of good practice in essay writing and project work
- Be aware of your own role as a model of ‘the way things are done...’be explicit about your professional values and the ethical dimensions of your subject
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