Unit: 1 Management as Process

 Management as a Process

As a process, management refers to a series of inter-related functions. It is the process by which management creates, operates and directs purposive organization through systematic, coordinated and co-operated human efforts. According to George R. Terry, “Management is a distinct process consisting of planning, organizing, actuating and controlling, performed to determine and accomplish stated objective by the use of human beings and other resources”. As a process, management consists of three aspects:

1. Management is a social process - Since human factor is most important among the other factors, therefore management is concerned with developing relationship among people. It is the duty of management to make interaction between people - productive and useful for obtaining organizational goals.

2. Management is an integrating process - Management undertakes the job of bringing together human physical and financial resources so as to achieve organizational purpose. Therefore, is an important function to bring harmony between various factors.

3. Management is a continuous process - It is a never ending process. It is concerned with constantly identifying the problem and solving them by taking adequate steps. It is an on-going process.

Meaning of Management Processes 

Management processes are those processes which are performed by managers. We invariably come across managers who are involved in planning, organizing, directing, motivating, controlling and decision-making. These processes are also called organizational processes because they go beyond an individual manager and affect the entire organization. 

We are well aware that teachers cany out their work on a day-to-day basis in conditions of endless variety, disturbances and sometimes even unpredictability. Let us take the example of a teacher's typical functions which could be that she/he formulates a plan of action (for carrying out instructions) of a year, a month or a day, organizes a debate in a class, motivates learners by giving positive reinforcement on their efforts, decides on the audio-visual aids to be used while teaching a particular topic, directs students for assignments and projects, and measures and monitors performances of students and takes corrective action as and when required. 

If we examine the above list closely, we can easily conclude that the above functions involve, directly or indirectly, basic management processes i.e. planning, organizing, motivating, decisiop-making, directing and monitoring. These are the various management processes which are undertaken in school and in the absence of which no school can function effectively. Now let us study in detail these management processes and their importance in a school setting. 

Different Management Processes in the School 

1) Planning 

Importance of planning in schools has been generally recognized by all. Without planning there is very little scope for intelligent and directed activity. Planning is an essential component of any kind of meaningful activityto take place in a classroom or outside. As teachers, we need to understand that there has to be a systematic, organized and an articulated scheme ofworking. Although planning may not be a solution for all foreseeable and unforeseeable problems, it is an extremely useful exercise to be undertaken by all teachers. 

Planning can be thought of at the beginning of the week, or the day, to list things that they have to do and spend some time thinking about the actions to be taken, problems to be solved, decisions'to bkmade, and the relative priorities that should be attached to these activities. 

Some of the planning activities which teachers carry out are: 

i) planning on what to teach and how to teach the content 

ii) lesson planning 

iii) planning out co-curricular activities for the semester or annually, and 

iv) allocating the emphasis to be given to unit/topic/lesson, i.e. whether the topic has to be dealt with in detail or cursorily. 

Organization 

Organising refers to the formal groupiilg of people and activities to facilitate achievement of the institute objectives. Schools have to develop as an organization where work gets done effectively and efficiently. This means responsibilities have to be defined and relationships have to be developed. The essential element is people: what they do and how they work together. In the present times, fluidity and flexibility are becoming increasingly the norms for organization. Therefore, schools can no longer remain static institutions. In spite of the fact that a teacher is in a constant state of flux, he/ she has very little scope to organize or reorganize the school . But this may not always be true as there is usually some room for reallocating responsibilities in relation to changing circumstances. 

In determining a teacher's responsibility for organizing any activity in a school, the basic elements to be considered are to : 

i) define the purpose and objectives, 

ii) analyse and identify activities or tasks required to meet these objectives, 

iii) allocate .related activities to individuals, 

iv) group related activities logically, 

v) provide for management and co-ordination of activities at each level of responsibility, and 

vi) establish a reporting and communication channel. 

 In order to have further clarity on this approach to organization, we can take the example of a teacher who is incharge of organizing a cultural programme for the school annual day. 

The organization of the activity would involve: 

i) determining the nature and sequence of various activities, 

ii) defining the role of different teachers incharge of different items for the programme, 

iii) defining the role of students who are directly participating in any item, 

iv) dividing the school into primary, secondary and higher secondary levels and defining the responsibility of the supervisors at each level, 

v) deciding on the school staff required and help from community, office staff, principal, vice-principal, paf-ents, industry, etc., and 

vi) establishing a basis for co-ordinating and controlling operations through regular meetings and reporting systems.

Direction

Direction is an important function of management and other processes like planning, organizing etc., will not succeed if proper direction is not there. Direction involves getting the work done through instructions and orders. For getting the work done individuals have to be supervised, motivated and communicated with. The ultimate aim is to see that work is accomplished according to policies and programme and given instructions. To realise the goals of an organization, communication has to be in a language which is unambiguous and cieady understood. Adequate guidelines have to be provided to get the work completed in time. 

Teachers who are employed in schools with a view to achieving'objectives which will contribute to the attainment of the overall mission and goals of the organization. To do this they have to direct operations and therefore individuals (which includes pupils) towards meeting these requirements. Providing a sense of direction is a key managerial task to which we also have to add motivation to ensyre that people move towards the desired goals. Directing invoIves exercising leadership motivating people, determining accountability and developing guidelines for action. For example, if a group of students is going on a botanical study tour, the objectives will not be met unless the teacher gives proper direction which includes the above components.  

Controlling 

Controlling involves rneasuring and monitoring performance, comparing results with plans and taking corrective action when required. It indicates how far the goals have been achieved and to what extent there is deviation from the plans. The basis of control is. measurement. It depends on accurate information and feedback about what is happening compared with what should be happening. In other words, we can say that control deals with the difference between planned and actual performance. 

As a teacher you will be given total responsibility for all that happens within your command. You cannot delegate that responsibility; in fact you will have to try and monitor everything that goes on the classroom and outside. 

Monitoring performance of your pupils will be your main responsibility. In order to exercise effective control teachers need to: 

i) plan what they aim to achieve, 

ii) measure regularly what has been achieved, 

iii) compare actual achievements with the plan, 

iv) take collective measures to ensure that deviations do not take place, 

v) take actiop to improve performance. 

On an individual basis also, teachers need to monitor their own performance against objectives or standards that have been set for them. 

Decision making

Decision-making is an essential function of management. Decision-making is defined as the selection of one course of action from two or more alternative courses of action. Thus decisionmaking actually means choosing behveen alternatives. George Terry defines it "as the selection based on certain criteria to select one appropriate alternative out of two or more alternatives". The Webster dictionary defines it "as the opinion framed in ones own mind to take a particular course of action". Decision-making is actually a part of problem-solving. There would be no decision for teachers to make if there were no problems. 

On making a decision, the matter is closed. The decision also serves as a rule for the future. Deciding implies that we make a choice from several ofmany possibilities. It is the determining ofwhat is to be done ratherthan actual doing. It is the process of choice whichleads to action. A teacher makes a number of decisions in hisher different spheres of activity. For example, each time a teacher chooses a particular methodology to teach a specific content matter, he is taking a decision. The decision-making power for teachers has a special significance. In fact, as teachers it is impossible for us to imagine what would happen in the absence of decision-making. It would undoubtedly lead to chaos and confusion and duplication of efforts. Decision-making'controls the entire activity of an organization and lends clarity to different tasks to be carried out. 

Motivation

Motivation plays a major role if we want people to move in the right direction and do what they are expected to do. A teacher in a classroom can get any work completed to satisfaction if learners are adequately motivated. A teacher has not only to motivate students who have a low level of  interest but also has to nurture the interest of the already motivated learners. 

A teacher can achieve this by: 

i) adopting a positive attitude towards learners instead of a fault finding one, 

ii) giving positive reinforcement i.e. appreciation and encouragement, 

iii) making academic and non-academic activities in a classroom relevant, meaningful and joyful, 

iv) giving assignments and project work to students of different abilities and potentials so that they can work at their individual pace, 

v) involving students in discussion and in activities that call for collaboration, co-operation and communication among students, 

vi) responding to student queries and problems in an encouraging manner, and 

vii) making the teaching-learning process an experimental one, so that learners can identify with what is happening outside the classroom.

Reference:

1) https://managementstudyguide.com/management_process.htm

2) https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/47002/1/Unit-9.pdf

3) https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/13280/1/Unit-3.pdf

Tyloriasm: Scientific Management

Classical Approach to Management Theory: Scientific Management

Introduction

Scientific Management became increasingly popular in the early lgth century. Scientific management has been defined as "that kind of management which conducts a business or affairs by standards established, by facts or truths gained through systematic observation, experiment or researching". In other words, it is a classical management approach that emphasizes the scientific study of work methods to improve the efficiency of the workers. Some of the earliest advocates of scientific management were Fredrick W. Taylor (1 856-191 5), Frank Gilbreth (1 868-1924), Lillian Gilbreth (1 878-1972) and Henry (1 861-1919). Taylor (1 856-191 5) felt that tlie soldering problems could be eliminated by developing a science of management. Scientific management approach uses scientific methods to determine how a task should be done instead of depending on the previous experiences of the concerned worker. Table given below presents the steps in scientific management.

Steps Involved in Scientific Management

Step - 1 Develop a science for each element of the job to replace old rule of the methods. 

Step - 2 Scientifically select employees and then train them to do the job as described in step- 1. 

Step - 3 Supervise employees to make sure they follow the prescribedmethods for performing their jobs.

Step - 4 Continue to plan the work but use workers to actually get the work done. 

In essence, scientific management as propounded by Taylor (1 856- 19 15) emphasizes: Need for developing a scientific way of performing each job; Training and preparing workers to perform that particular job; Establishing harmonious relations bettveen management and workers so that the job is performed in the desired way. .~~%o major managerial practices that emerged from Taylor's approach to management are: the piece-rate incentive system, and the time-and-motion study. 

Piece-rate incentive system: Taylor felt that the wage system was one of the major reasons for soldiering. To resolve this problem, he advocated the use of a piece-rate incentive system. The aiin of this system was to reward the workers who produced the maximum out-put. 

Time and motion Study: Taylor tried to determine the best way to perform each and every job. To do so, he introduced a method called ''time'-and-Motion" study in which jobs are broken down into various small tasks or motions and unnecessary motions are remo;ed to find out the best way of doing a job. After Taylor, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth made numerous contributions to the concepts of scientific management. Frank Gilbreth (1 868-1924) is considered the "father of motion study". Lillian Gilbreth (1878-1972) was associated with the research,pertaining to motion studies. 

Motion study involves finding out the best sequence and minimumnumber of motions needed to complete a task. Frank and Lillion were mainly involved in exploring neb ways for eliminating unnecessary motions and reducing work fatigue. 

Merits: 

The primary benefit of scientific management was conservation and proper use of every once energy. Moreover specialization and division of labour have brought about the second industrial revolution. Time and motion techniques are important tools to organize - the tasks in a more efficient and rational way. 

In short, scientific. management is not only a rational approach to solve organizational problems but it also 'faci1itatks";he profe~sionalisation of management. ' Although the basic principles of scientific management were originally developed by Taylor, several associates of Taylor like Gantt, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, and Emerson further elaborated the ideas, developed new techniques and improved upon the new approach to management. In practice, scientific management proved to be so fruitful in increasing and efficiency of operations that it was widely accepted in the USA and Western Europe. 

Limitations of Scientific Management: Scientific Management has provided many valuable insights into the development of management thought. In spite of the numerous contributions it made, there are a few limitations of scieqtific manageqent. 

These are as follows: 

* The principles of scientific management revolve round the problems at the operational level and do not focus on the management of an organization from a mangers.point of view. These principles~focus on the solutions of problems froin an engineering point of view. 

* The proponents of scientific management were of the opinion that people were rational and were motivated primarily by the desire for material gain. Taylor and his followers overlooked the social needs of workers and over emphasized their economic and physical needs. 

* Scientific Management theorists also ignored the human desire for job satisfaction. Since workers are more likely to go on strike over factors like working conditions and job content rather than salary, principles of scientific management, which were based on the "national worker" model, become increasingly ineffective. 

Principles of Scientific Management by Taylor:

F.W. Taylor or Fredrick Winslow Taylor, also known as the ‘Father of scientific management’ proved with his practical theories that a scientific method can be implemented to management. Taylor gave much concentration on the supervisory level of management and performance of managers and workers at an operational level. Let’s discuss in detail the five principles of management by F.W Taylor.

1. Science, not the Rule of Thumb-

This rule focuses on increasing the efficiency of an organisation through scientific analysis of work and not with the ‘Rule of Thumb’ method. Taylor believed that even a small activity like loading paper sheets into boxcars can be planned scientifically. This will save time and also human energy. This decision should be based on scientific analysis and cause and effect relationships rather than ‘Rule of Thumb’ where the decision is taken according to the manager’s personal judgement.

2. Harmony, Not Discord-

Taylor indicated and believed that the relationship between the workers and management should be cordial and completely harmonious. Difference between the two will never be beneficial to either side. Management and workers should acknowledge and understand each other’s importance. Taylor also suggested the mental revolution for both management and workers to achieve total harmony.

3. Mental Revolution-

This technique involves a shift of attitude of management and workers towards each other. Both should understand the value of each other and work with full participation and cooperation. The aim of both should be to improve and boost the profits of the organisation. Mental Revolution demands a complete change in the outlook of both the workers and management; both should have a sense of togetherness.

4. Cooperation, not Individualism-

It is similar to ‘Harmony, not discord’ and believes in mutual collaboration between workers and the management. Managers and workers should have mutual cooperation and confidence and a sense of goodwill. The main purpose is to substitute internal competition with cooperation.

5. Development of Every Person to his Greatest Efficiency-

The effectiveness of a company also relies on the abilities and skills of its employees. Thus, implementing training, learning best practices and technology, is the scientific approach to brush up the employee skill. To assure that the training is given to the right employee, the right steps should be taken at the time of selection and recruiting candidates based on a scientific selection.

Reference:

1) https://byjus.com/commerce/taylor-principles-of-scientific-management/

2) https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/13282/1/Unit-2.pdf

3) https://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/9173/1/Unit-14.pdf

Development of modern concept of Educational Management- Unit:1

 EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT THOUGHT

How to manage activities involving large number of people must have been known even in the ancient past. There are evidence all over the world about the practice of management since the dawn of civilisation. Without proper management it would have been impossible to undertake consrruction of the Egyptian pyramids, or the Great Wall and the irrigation canals of China. However, organised activities in earlier times mainly required engaging people for manual operations and getting work done under strict supervision. On the other hand, work in cottage industries which flourished during the middle ages mainly involved engagement of family members and apprentices and application of traditional skills with simple tools and implements. ' 

Far reaching changes took place in the organisation of economic activities with the industrial revolution at the turn of the 18th century. Scientific and technical inventions paved the way of large scale factories using mechanical power and employing hundreds Approaches to the Study of of people. The systems of transport and communication were also transformed in the ' Management process and enabled producers to undertake distribution of goods in ever widening markets. With the growth in size and increasing complexity of organisations, the nature and scope of managerial functioils have also undergone considerable changes. The task of management no longer consists of supervising simple operalions and taking routine . decisions. It involves procurement of physical, human and monetary resources as well as their effective use for achieving the organisational objectives. The process of management and the various functions involved have thus received increasing attention of management experts over time. 

Early Thinkers 

 Thinking on management as a separate field of learning and practice began early in the 19th centuiy. It was at this time that persons like Robert Owen, Charles Babbage, Metcalf and Towne expressed their ideas on the. ways and means of making management practices more effective and efficient. 

Robert Owen, who owned and managed several textile mills in Scotland, emphasised the importance of human relations in' management. He was very much against the existing practices of workers being employed in factories to perform manual work for as long as thirteen hours per day, employment of child workers even below the pge of ten, absence of housing facilities, etc. ltle introduced many reforn~s in his own factories, reducing working hours, improving working conditions providing housing facilities, and arranging ' supply of goods at cheaper rales through company stores. On the bisis of his own experience, he advocated that investment in human resources was more profitable than investmenl in nlachinery and other physical resomces. He, therefore, recorninended that indusrtialists should change their attitude towards the workers and devote more attention to their well-being. 

Charles Babbage was a professor at Cambridge. Having studied the management of factories in the United Kingdom and France, .he observed that einployees and owners were totally ignorant of the basic tools of scientific melhods, they were guided purely by tradition, estimates and imagination and the owner-managers never took decisions on the basis of factual analysis. According to Babbage, it is essential to apply scientific principles to work processes for increasing productivity and reducing expenses. In his writings, Babbage emphasised the importance of division of labour on the basis of skills, and also stressed the necessity of replacing manual operations by machinery. As the manager of an army arsenal, 

Henry Metcalf held the view that the science of adniinistralion ought to be based on principles evolved by recording observations and experiences. The art of management, according to him, should be based on accumulated observitions which are on record and are presented systematically. His book on cost of manufactures and administration of workshops suggested a iystem of control with the help of work records maintained in Time Cards and Material Cards and a method of automatic actions: Henry Robinson Townc was the chief execulive of a manufacture company. His contribution to management lay in defining the role of a manager as a combination of the roles of an administrator, an engineer, and R statistician. Management of industrial work, according to Towne, required combination of different qualities of good businessmen and good engineers. He succeeded in motivating engineers to study . management, and advised them to be cost-conscious. At the same time, he emphasised that the process of management has multiple dimensions and ehgineer-managers must be aware of it. 

Early thinker on management made an attempt to suggest improvements in the. functioning of manufacturing organisations by different means. In that process the thinkers also provided a new background for manageinen[ in practice. Growth of business and industry proceeded at a rapid pace in the Western European countries and the USA throughout,the 19th century, Increased competitiorr in the domestic and'intemational rnaikets during this period drew the attention of management towards the necessity of improving productivity and efficiency of theil undertakings.

Reference:

UNIT 2:  APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF MANAGEMENT https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/13282/1/Unit-2.pdf

Characteristics of Good mangement

 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD MANAGEMENT 

Management is characterized by a few elements. They are: 

1 Management is a group activity : Since the organization reflects the social dimension, where individuals interact with each other in getting things done, individual efforts alone doesn’t guarantee results. Moreover, management cannot be done in isolation and hence, includes group activity. Management is thus seen as integrating individual efforts through organized group activity. 

2 Management is Universal in its application :Management applies to government, business enterprises, education institutions, military, medical and non-governmental organizations in equal measure. The principles of management suggested by the German industrial Psychologist Henry Fayol, are considered as guiding principles which could be adapted to specific organizational context. 

3 Management is a continuous activity: Management is dynamic in nature and hence is continuous. The ever changing organizational activity provides continuity to management functions. 

4 Management as an Integrated Effort :The process of management integrates the human and other resources in the achievement of the objectives of the organization. In the process, the individual goals and the organizational goals get aligned for effective functioning of the organization. 

5 Management as a well-defined process: Management is considered unique because of the well-defined and clear cut process of getting things done through the various functions of management. 

6 Management is objective-driven and result-oriented: Organizations have clearly marked objectives and goals, the accomplishment of which is systematically driven by the management function. 

7 Management as a set of roles and skills :It refers to an individual or a group of individuals who are actively involved in managerial function.The individuals are designated as managers and the Introduction to Management 12 group as management. The managers are expected to learn the managerial skills to perform their managerial roles effectively. 

8 Management as a function :The management process is characterized by the functions that the manager performs. They are planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, controlling and budgeting. 

9 Management as a discipline :Management as a discipline refers to a body of knowledge with unique pedagogical tools as taught in various educational institutions to impart the basic concepts and principles relating to the practice of management. Its importance is demonstrated by the glut on the growth of B-School across the globe and in India and the way it enjoys a prominent place in popular perception.

Reference:

https://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/79140/3/Unit-1.pdf

https://deb.ugc.ac.in/Uploads/SelfLearning/HEI-P-U-0543/HEI-P-U-0543_SelfLearning_20210729103348.pdf 

Concept of Management- Definitions

 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF MANAGEMENT 

It is not an exaggeration to state that everyone is a manager in some measure or the other in our daily lives. People confront different situations/contexts forcing them to manage the otherwise messy situations in a planned and organized way so as to achieve the goals. The levels, however, vary depending on the actors and actions. Thus, management could be understood as an activity with a goal accomplishment and results orientation.

Since an organization is imbedded with groups of people working together towards an objective, management is characterized by the interaction with others in the accomplishment of the task. It is in this context that Mary Parker Folletthas defined “management as the art of getting things done through the efforts of others”. Although this definition relates to the accomplishment of the task and the people dimension, it has been elaborated further by Herald Koontz and O’Donnel, when they brought the organized group into the definition. According to them, “management is the process of getting things done though the organized group efforts”. The people dimension has been the focus of Harold Koontz, when they said “Management means Manage Men tactfully” to label itManage/Men/T As the meaning and definition evolved, the focus on the process gained importance. F W Taylor defined management “as the art of knowing what you want to do in the best and cheapest way”In spite of various definitions, the dynamic nature of management makes it difficult to have a universally accepted definition encompassing all its dimensions in its entirety. In summary, the essence of management revolves around managing people and other resources in an organization both internal and external, leading to the achievement of the objectives of the organization. The meaning could be better understood by examining the nature of management. Management: 

1.3 NATURE OF MANAGEMENT 

 A debate continued for quite long on what exactly is the nature of management. One school of thought argues that management is a science, which the other school of thought disagrees and views as an art. Science represents a systematic body of knowledge with underlying principles that have universal application. Scientific procedure depends on reliability and validity based on experimentation and generalization. One of the principles of science also is to explain the cause and effect phenomenon with disciplined imagination. Appling these principles, management over the years has developed certain principles, laws, theories and generalizations which could be applied universally in a variety of organizations. Luther Gullick argues that management has a body of knowledge with underlying principles and is in the process of being called a science. He also contended that the interrelationship in the business scenario was being scientifically and systematically explained with emerging theories tested and proven and improved by logic and the facts on the ground.Scientific management proposed by F W Taylor was termed as scientific management, which is proof enough for the status of a science based on a numbers of experiments on the human beings on the shop floor using management techniques. As the field does not enjoy the status of an exact science in the nature of pure sciences like physics, chemistry etc., some argue it as an inexact science. Management deals with human beings and hence it is difficult to verify and predict the complex human behavior. The dynamic nature of management, complicates it all the more in terms of verifiability, reliability, predictability and generalization. Further, management has to account for the contextual variation, which also makes a difficult to prove the exactness of a science. However, the scientific procedure, systematic analysis and methodological rigor used in management research along with advanced tools and techniques provides the field the much needed status to the discipline. Research in the allied areas like mathematics, statistics, Psychology have added the scientific fervor to the discipline. 

 In contrast, the other school of management thought argues that management cannot be equated with the logical, sequential and scientific methodology of basic sciences and hence, views management as an art. George Terry, a management thinker, states that “management is bringing about desired Introduction to Management 10 results through the application of skills”. Art relates to the application of theories and principles in problem solving activities. The manager applies his skills and competency built through his experience/exposure coupled with the intuition and judgment while discharging the functions of managerial decision making. Continuous effort and deliberate practice makes the managers successful managers and they try to develop this art though skillful practice. The creativity and innovation that could be seen in the managerial function could be attributed to the mastery of this art by the managers. While the debate of management as a science or an art still continues, a third group of scholars contend that management could be a combination of both art and science. They argue that managerial activity is a creative art although, it is becoming more scientific in nature. In addition, the theories and practice acknowledge unique characteristics which make it a distinct field.

Reference:

https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/9524/1/Unit-1.pdf

https://egyankosh.ac.in/handle/123456789/49032

https://deb.ugc.ac.in/Uploads/SelfLearning/HEI-P-U-0543/HEI-P-U-0543_SelfLearning_20210729103348.pdf

The need of management MED 401- educational management

 

The need of management

      (1)      Optimum utilisation of resources,

      (2)      Expansion and diversification,

      (3)      Reduction of employers absenteeism and turnover,

      (4)      Utilises the benefits of science and technology,

      (5)      Encourages initiative and innovation,

      (6)      Minimises wastages,

      (7)      Team work,

      (8)      Motivation,

      (9)      Reduction in labour turnover,

    (10)    Higher efficiency,

    (11)    Improves the quality of life of the workers,

    (12)    Cordial industrial relations,

    (13)    Corporate image,

    (14)    Promotes national development,

    (15)    It helps society.

1. Optimum utilisation of resources

Management brings all the available resources together. All these available resources are important for achieving the objective of the organization which are:

Men,

Money,

Machines,

Methods,

Optimum (best)

Utilization (use)

2. Expansion and diversification

Management helps the organization to achieve its objectives efficiently, systematically, easily and quickly. It helps the organization to face the cut-throat competition to grow, expand and diversify.

3. Reduction of employers absenteeism and turnover

Management motivates people. It provides different incentives to the employees. This includes positive, negative, monetary and non financial incentives. These incentives increase the willingness and efficiency of the employees. This increases the productivity and profitability of the organization.

Management also develops team spirit and increases the efficiency within the organization. It in addition reduces labor turnover and absenteeism.

4. Utilises the benefits of science and technology

Man has made rapid progress within the field of Science and Technology. Management utilizes the benefits of this progress. It provides industries with the latest machines. It provides the consumers with the newest products.

5. Encourages initiative and innovation

Management spurs initiative. This means it initiative the employees to make their own plans and to execute these plans. It inspires the employees to give their suggestions. Initiative gives satisfaction to the laborers and success to the organization.

Management in addition encourages innovation. It brings innovative ideas, modern methods, latest techniques to the organization.

6. Minimises wastages

Management minimizes the wastages of human, waste materials and monetary resources. Work is done through arrangement, proper manufacturing and Control. Managers motivate subordinate to reduce wastages. Reduction in wastage's brings a higher return to firm.

7. Team work

Management always builds a team spirit in the organization. The combine effort of work and unity lead to the prosperity within the organization. Team work plays an important part in the success of organization.

8. Motivation

Management motivates employees by sharing their profits by the mean of bonus. They also give a good amount of incentives to the employees. This motivation zeal the employee to work harder, which results in higher efficiency in production.

9. Reduction in labour turnover

Management helps to reduce labor turnover in the organization. Employee turnover takes place when some employees leave the organization, and others join in their place. Frequent labor turnover increases selection and training cost.

Management creates a sense of responsibility among the employees who brings down labor turnover.

10. Higher efficiency

Management always wants that his employees should produce higher efficiency. Productivity is the relationship between returns and costs. Higher returns at minimum investment then the organization is said to be more proficient.

11. Improves the quality of life of the workers

Management provides bonus and incentive to the employees for their work. It gives a healthy work environment to the workers. It also provides medical and insurance faculties to worker and their families. It provides a financial stability which helps in boosting life of the workers.

12. Cordial industrial relations

Management ensures industrial peace. It gives more importance to the ‘Human Element’ in business. It applies positive motivation. All this improves the relations between the employees and the employers.

13. Corporate image

Efficient and effective management maintains a good image and goodwill of organization. This is because of quality of products and services offered by the organization and also due to the social responsibility of organization towards society.

14. Promotes national development

Management is regarded as a key to the economic development of nation. It puts resources to the optimum use. It leads to capital formation and tech advancement. It generates handsome revenue for government. It increases national income and standard of living of people. Thus, it leads to development across all sectors, and significant growth throughout the nation.

15. It helps society

In management, profit is not only the objective of business. Today, the managers are combining profit objective with social purposes. They are providing society with a regular supply of good quality goods and services at reasonable prices. They are also providing employment opportunities to people. They in addition pay high taxes to the government. These taxes are used for improving nations. Nowadays, managers are using part of their profits to build hospitals, schools, colleges, etc. for civilization. So it is helping humanity in many ways.

Conclusion:

The need and importance of Management are universally accepted. The survival progress and success of an organization greatly depend on its management. There is a wide gap between Europe and Asia. This gap is called the ‘Science and Technology Gap.’ Even so, in reality, it is the ‘Management Gap.’ Japan and Germany were totally destroyed in the second world war but today these countries are highly developed. This is because these countries are well managed.

 

So, management is required in all aspects of life.

 

 

 

 

 

COLLABORATIVE AND CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING

COLLABORATIVE  AND  CO-OPERATIVE   LEARNING

Collaborative learning

Collaborative learning is an educational approach that involves groups of learners working together to solve a problem, complete a task, or create a product. It is based on the idea that learning is a naturally social act. Learning occurs though active engagement among peers, either face-to-face or online.

The main characteristics of collaborative learning are: a common task or activity; small group learning, co-operative behaviour; interdependence; and individual responsibility and accountability (Lejeune, 1999).
Collaborative learning is similar to, but not the same as, cooperative learning. In cooperative learning the task is divided vertically (i.e., members work more or less concurrently on different aspects of a project), whereas in collaborative learning the task is divided horizontally (i.e., members work together more or less sequentially on different aspects of a project) (Dillenbourg, 1999).

Cooperative learning

Learning work in a group and share idea is a great strength, one which began in a young age and is carried through in to adult life and the work place. Social Development Theory suggests that community and collaboration play a central role in the learning process as well as social interaction and behaviour.

Sharing idea however, is not easy for everyone as specially when there is a complex interplay of differing personality type – shy, extrovert, chatty or an un willingness to speak in front of the group, or individuals with stronger personalities who can don’t allow others to participate. Through collaborative learning, individuals can learn to develop more tolerance towards one another and through cooperative and encouragement, all members can successfully learn to share ideas.

Meaning collaborative learning

Collaborative learning is a situation in which two or more people learn or attempt to learn something together unlike individual learning, people engaged in collaborative learning capitalize on one another's resources and skills (asking one another for information, evaluating one another's ideas, monitoring one another's work, etc.). More specifically, collaborative learning is based on the model that knowledge can be created within a population where members actively interact by sharing experiences and take on asymmetric roles put differently, collaborative learning refers to methodologies and environment in which learners engage in a common task where each individual depends on and is accountable to each other. These include both face-to-face conversations and computer discussions (online forums, chat rooms, etc.). Methods for examining collaborative learning processes include conversation analysis and statistical discourse analysis

Thus, collaborative learning is commonly illustrated when groups of students work together to search for understanding, meaning, or solutions or to create an artefact or product of their learning. Furthermore, collaborative learning redefines the traditional student-teacher relationship in the classroom which results in controversy over whether this paradigm is more beneficial than harmful. Collaborative learning activities can include collaborative writing, group projects, joint problem solving, debates, study teams, and other activities. The approach is closely related to cooperative learning.

Strategy of Collaborative learning (Learning Techniques)

Think/Write, Pair, Share:

The think/write, pair, share strategy is a cooperative learning technique that encourages individual participation and is applicable across all grade levels and class sizes. Students think through questions using three distinct steps:

 1. Think/Write: Students think independently about a question that has been posed, forming ideas of their own and write them down.

 2. Pair: Students are grouped in pairs to discuss their thoughts. This step allows students to articulate their ideas and to consider those of others.

3. Share: Student pairs share their ideas with a larger group, such as the whole class. Often, students are more comfortable presenting ideas to a group with the support of a partner. In addition, students' ideas have become more refined through this three-step process.

Round Table:

Round Table is a collaborative learning technique that allows students to assess prior knowledge, recall information and practice communication skills. The steps are:

1. Write: Each student writes one (or two or 3) sentences about a given topic (or this could be an answer to a question) on a piece of paper.

 2. Share: The paper is passed around to one group member at a time. Each group member responds in writing.

3. Summarize: When the original is returned, the student reads the comments from the group and shares what the collective sense of what was said in the group about the topic (or question)

Jigsaw:

Jigsaw is a collaborative learning technique that gives students practice in the acquisition and presentation of new material, in review, and in informed debate. Interdependence and status equalisation are developed.

The method is:

1. Each student on the team becomes an “expert” on one topic

 2. “Experts” group with members from other teams assigned the corresponding expert topic.

 3. Upon returning to their teams, each one, in turn, teaches the group.

4. Students are all assessed on all aspects of the topic.

Concept Mapping:

 Concept mapping is a collaborative learning technique that allows students working in groups a way of illustrating the connections that exist between terms or concepts covered in course material.

The method is:

 1. Students write terms from the course on a large piece of paper

 2. Lines are drawn connecting individual terms to indicate the relationships between terms. Most of the terms in a concept map have multiple connections.

3. Developing a concept map requires the students to identify and organize information and to establish meaningful relationships between the pieces of information.

Meaning of Cooperative learning

Cooperative learning is a teaching method where small groups of learners work collaboratively towards a goal. It can be a very effective teaching model that allows students to interact with each other and be an active participant in their learning. Not all situations warrant a cooperative learning model though, so we’ll explore the advantages and disadvantages of this teaching method.

Advantages to Cooperative Learning

·        Students actively participate in their education by exploring and learning from each other. They are able to experience a wide range of thoughts and opinions on a subject from working with their peers. More importantly, they arrive at their own conclusions after having done research or exploring a topic thoroughly.

·        Students are able to practice and hone social skills such as working in a group, resolving conflict, problem solving, and taking directions from a peer leader to name a few. These important, life long skills are needed in the workplace but are rarely practiced in a typical lecture style classroom.

·        Cooperative learning is a teaching model that is heavily supported by research as being very effective. It can be used along with a variety of other teaching strategies, which we’ll address in a later post.

·        The teacher becomes a facilitator instead of a lecturer. They can work with the small groups individually, assisting and intervening when needed.

·        A deeper level of understanding can take place within groups as students delve into subjects they are interested in.

·        Groups can be assigned topics based on skill level or difficulty. This form of differentiation enables students of all abilities to be successful, even if their subjects or products may be different from their peers’.

Disadvantages to Cooperative Learning

Not all students work well with others, and may cause conflict within a group. This can potentially sabotage a cooperative learning environment.

• Not all lessons are ideal for group work. Easy or straightforward concepts may not be as interesting or successful in a cooperative learning assignment.
• Groups will finish at different times. This can add a layer of classroom management complexity for the instructor.
• Cooperative learning groups can create a level of noise within the classroom that the teacher might not be comfortable with, or know how to manage well.
• Some students may not do their fair share of work, or certain students may monopolise the task. This can lead to challenging grading situations for the teacher.

We will address many of these disadvantages in the coming series of posts, and discuss how to work around these challenging aspects. We’ll also look at which class situations are most suitable for cooperative learning methods. Stay tuned!

Benefits of Cooperative Learning

 How can cooperative learning benefit you and your group?

Cooperative Learning helps to:

• Raise achievement of students.
• Build positive relationships among students - important for creating a learning community that values diversity.
• Provide experiences that develop both good learning skills and social skills.

 Research shows cooperative learning helps to produce:

• Higher achievement.
• Increased retention.
• More positive relationships and a wider circle of friends.
• Greater intrinsic motivation.
• Higher self-esteem.
• Greater social support.
• More on-task behaviour.
• Better attitudes toward teachers.
• Better attitudes toward school.

Hopefully you have already had some successful experiences with cooperative learning and you can relate to many of the benefits listed above. If you haven't had any experiences with team or group work, or if you have only had bad experiences, don't worry! Becoming skilled in cooperative learning takes time, patience, and persistence. The more you learn about cooperative learning and the more you practice your skills, the better you will become and the more benefits you will experience. It takes time.

Five Basic Elements of Cooperative Learning

There are five fundamental elements involved in cooperative learning. In fact, these five elements distinguish cooperative learning from other forms of group learning. These elements can be thought of as pieces in a puzzle. When all of these elements are present in a learning situation, the result is a cooperative learning group. The five basic elements of cooperative learning are:

• Positive interdependence
• Individual and group accountability
• Interpersonal and small group skills
• Face-to-face primitives interaction
• Group processing

Positive interdependence :

This means the group has a clear task or goal so everyone knows they sink or swim together. The efforts of each person benefit not only the individual, but also everyone else in the group. The key to positive interdependence is committing to personal success as well as the success of every member of the group.

Individual And Group Accountability:

The group is accountable for achieving its goals, and each member must be accountable for contributing a fair share of the work toward the group goal. No one can "hitchhike" on the work of others. The performance of each individual must be assessed and the results given back to the group.

Inter personal and small group skills:

Interpersonal and small group skills are required to function as part of a group. These are basic teamwork skills. Group members must know how to - and be motivated to - provide effective leadership, make decisions, build trust, communicate, and manage conflict. 

• Completing tasks
• Communicating
• Decision making
• Managing conflict
• Appreciating group members

Face to Face primitives Interaction:

This means that students promote each other's success by sharing resources. They help, support, encourage, and praise each other's efforts to learn. Both academic and personal support are part of this mutual goal. 

Group processing:

Group members need to feel free to communicate openly with each other to express concerns as well as to celebrate accomplishments. They should discuss how well they are achieving their goals and maintaining effective working relationships.

To help you understand cooperative learning a little better, here are some ideas and activities that could help team members develop better skills in each of the areas listed above.

Ways to Ensure Positive Interdependence:

• The group has only one pencil, paper, book, or other resource.
• One paper is written by the group.
• A task is divided into jobs and can't be finished unless all help.
• Pass one paper around the group on which each member must write a section.
• Each person learns a topic and then teaches it to the group (Jigsaw method).
• Offer a reward (e.g. bonus points) if everyone in the group succeeds.

 Ways To Ensure Individual and Group Accountability:

• Students do the work before bringing it to the group.
• One student is chosen at random and questioned on the material the group has studied.
• Everyone writes a paper; the group certifies the accuracy of all their papers; the instructor chooses only one paper to grade.
• Students receive bonus points if all do well individually.
• Instructor observes students taking turns orally rehearsing information.

 Ways to Ensure Interpersonal and Small Group Skills:

• Be on time for group meetings and start them on time.
• Listen to others. Don't be so busy rehearsing what you are going to say that you miss other group members' points and ideas.
• Don't close the road to mutual learning by interrupting or using language that can be regarded as a personal attack.
• Make sure everyone has the opportunity to speak.
• Don't suppress conflict, but do control and discipline it.

 Ways to Ensure Face-to-Face Primitives Interaction:

• A student orally explains how to solve a problem.
• One group member discusses a concept with others.
• A group member teaches classmates about a topic.
• Students help each other connect present and past learning.

 Ways To Ensure Group Processing:

• Group members describe each other's helpful and unhelpful behaviours and actions.
• As a group, make decisions about which behaviours to continue and which behaviours to change.

Additional Elements of Effective Groups

Although team dynamics (how the individual team members work together) can differ from team to team, effective teams share the following characteristics:

Full participation - All team members contribute their time and energy to the project. More importantly, all team members participate in the decision making process.

Trust - Members trust that each member will add value to the project, and members work to ensure that everybody contributes and that appreciation is expressed for different contributions.

Open communication - Communication is the glue that holds a team together. Communication is effective when all members:

• Contribute ideas.
• Provide feedback constructively.
• Ask for clarification on anything that might be confusing.
• Provide frequent updates.
• Listen to each other carefully.

Social/business balance - Although teams shouldn't socialize 100% of the time, it shouldn't be all business either. Casual conversation allows members to know each other better, leading to better working relations.

Reference:

Dr. Spencer Kagan (1999) , Cooperative Learning: Seventeen Pros and Seventeen Cons plus Ten Tips for Success, Kagan Online Magazine. Retrieved from: https://www.kaganonline.com/free_articles/dr_spencer_kagan/ASK06.php

https://clt.curtin.edu.au/teaching_learning_practice/student_centred/collaborative.cfm

http://www.masterofartsinteaching.net/best/online/