MED 306 Inclusive Education

Unit:1 Introduction to Inclusive Education

Concept of Inclusive education

            What is “inclusive education”? According to UNESCO, inclusive education is seen as “a process of addressing and responding to the diversity of needs of all learners through increasing participation in learning, cultures and communities, and reducing exclusion from education and from within education.” The goal is that the whole education system will facilitate learning environments where teachers and learners embrace and welcome the challenge and benefits of diversity. Within an inclusive education approach, learning environments are fostered where individual needs are met and every student has an opportunity to succeed.

Concept of Inclusive Education

            The principle of inclusive education was adopted at the “World Conference on Special Needs Education: Access and Quality” (Salamanca Statement, Spain 1994) and was restated at the World Education Forum (Dakar, Senegal 2000). The Statement solicits governments to give the highest priority to making education systems inclusive and adopt the principle of inclusive education as a matter of policy. The idea of inclusion is further supported by the United Nation’s Standard Rules on Equalization of Opportunities for Person with Disability Proclaiming Participation and equality for all. Inclusive Education (IE) is defined as a process of addressing the diverse needs of all learners by reducing barriers to, and within the learning environment. It means attending the age appropriate class of the child’s local school, with individually tailored support (UNICEF 2007).

            Inclusive education is a process of strengthening the capacity of the education system to reach out to all learners. At the Jometin World Conference (1990) in Thailand, the goals for 'Education for All' were set and it was proclaimed that every person (child, youth and adult) shall be able to benefit from educational opportunities which would meet their basic learning needs. Inclusion is an educational approach and philosophy that provides all students greater opportunities for academic and social achievement. This includes opportunities to participate in the full range of social, recreational, arts, sports, music, day care and afterschool care, extra-curricular, faith based, and all other activities. In India, National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) joined hands with UNICEF and launched Project Integrated Education for Disabled Children (PIED) in the year 1987, to strengthen the integration of learners with disabilities into regular schools. In recent years, the concept of inclusive education has been broadened to encompass not only students with disabilities, but also all students who may be disadvantaged. This broader understanding of curriculum has paved the way for developing the National Curriculum Framework (NCF-2005) that reiterates the importance of including and retaining all children in Main-stream Education.

Defining Inclusive Education

Inclusive education means students with diverse and different learning and physical abilities staying in the same classroom to learn side by side.  It is the act of placing students in age-appropriate general education classes in schools available in their immediate environment that gives access to high-quality instructions, interventions and assistance to meet up primary academic curriculum irrespective of any challenges they may have. Educators need to recognise the fact that children with disabilities have equal capacities to learn and perform optimally as their age-mates that are without limitations. These children are therefore supposed to be part of all educational activities in their classrooms and within the neighbourhood.  Such activities include excursions, academic debates, student government, sports and other related activities.

Recognising the values in the diversity and unique contribution of each student in the classroom is one of the key drivers of an inclusive education system. Every child feels safe and develops a sense of belonging. The students along with their parents are involved in setting academic goals and making decisions that determine the success of their learning and education. A lot of schools claim to be inclusive, but this is often not the case. Sharing the same physical space and performing different activities is not inclusive. Most educational institutions in Nigeria do not operate an inclusive setting, the reason for this could be inadequate funding, cultural beliefs, negative perception and teacher qualification.  However, this is an area they should look into and take seriously. The country can join forces with other progressive nations to advocate for the right of learners with disabilities.

NEED AND IMPORTANCE

Self reliant

For social equality

For the use of modern technology

Developing feeling of self respect

For achieving the universalisation

For the development of healthy citizenship

To enable children to stay with their families

To fulfill the constitutional responsibilities

Need of Inclusive education

There have  been efforts internationally to  include children with disabilities in the educational mainstream. In order to achieve truly inclusive education, we need to think about and incorporate children with special needs into regular schools. Especially, because these kids face some sort of barriers to learning and participation in the classroom. As general education classrooms include more  and  more  diverse  students,  teachers  realize  the  value  of  accepting  each  student  as unique.

 All children have equal access to education.

 All children learn alongside their same-age peers.

The focus of education is on the child's abilities, not disabilities.

Children become accepting and understanding of one another's abilities, talents, personalities and needs.

Meaningful relationships and friendships develop as students spend quality time with one another.

Students develop confidence in their ability to interact with one another and the world around them.

Teachers in inclusive schools are highly trained and skilled at delivering appropriate, student-centered curriculum through differentiated activities according to ability level.

In addition to the classroom teacher, children with special needs are supported by special education teachers, paraprofessionals, and specialists such as Speech/Language Therapists.

Various resources and assistive technologies are available to students in inclusive schools in an effort to reach and teach all learners.

Inclusive schools value input and participation from the whole community, not just students.

Why inclusion?
Research has shown that:
• Children do better academically when in inclusive settings;
• Developing peers gain in understanding about disability, tolerance and support;
• Inclusion provides models for normal and age appropriate behaviour;
• Inclusion provides opportunities to develop relationships;
• Inclusive education is the key step towards inclusion in life;

Experience shows:
• One of the most important ingredients for successful inclusion is the will to make it succeed / a positive attitude;
• Most teachers have the skills to understand the individual needs of a child with Down syndrome;
• Most teachers have the skills to teach children with Down syndrome effectively and sensitively;

Specific learning profile of a child with Down syndrome:
• Child is not just developmentally delayed in his whole development;
• No need for a diluted curriculum in all learning areas;
• Learning profile goes hand in hand with a learning style;
• Certain factors influencing learning are typical of many children with Down syndrome;
• Strengths that facilitate learning;

Strong visual awareness and visual learning skill are:
• Learnt by using signing;
• Learnt by using the written word;
• Learnt by modelling behaviour and attitudes;
• Learning by way of practical material and hands-on activities
• Weaknesses that inhibit learning;

Importance of inclusive education

Many schools have inclusion classrooms. In part, that’s because the Individuals with Disabilities in Education Act (IDEA) says that kids who receive special education services should learn in what’s called the “least restrictive environment” (LRE). That means they should spend as much time as possible with students who don’t receive special education services.

At its core, inclusive education is about appreciating each individual’s differences and unique set of strengths and limitations. It’s not just an education philosophy; it’s an important life skill. Children grow into adults who live in a world filled with people different from themselves; learning how to interact and work with these people is a key accomplishment of childhood, as integral as academic proficiency. An inclusive school is a perfect training ground for real life, because daily social, physical and academic interaction between kids who are typically developing and their special needs peers means students develop:

Greater sensitivity. Children who develop in a typical manner become more sensitive by learning side-by-side with special needs children. They understand how words can hurt, they practice patience, and they learn empathy.

Better understanding of strengths/weaknesses. Kids in inclusive schools learn that everyone has strengths and weaknesses. They learn to appreciate these differences and how to collaborate in order to accomplish something.

More tolerance. Inclusive schooling teaches kids the value of another human being—no matter what that person looks or sounds like. Physical and mental differences do not equate to a lesser value.

Inclusive classes are set up in a number of ways. Some use a collaborative team teaching (or co-teaching) model. With co-teaching, there’s a special education teacher in the room all day.

Other inclusive classes have special education teachers “push in” at specific times during the day to teach (instead of pulling kids out of class to a separate room). In either case, both teachers are available to help all students.

Studies show that inclusion is beneficial for all students—not just those who receive special education services.

1: Differentiated Instruction

All students learn differently. This is a principal of inclusive education. One key teaching strategy is to break students into small groups. By using small groups, teaching can be tailored to the way each student learns best. This is known as differentiated instruction.

Teachers meet everyone’s needs by presenting lessons in different ways and using Universal Design for Learning (UDL). For example, they may use multisensory instruction. In math, that may mean using visual aids and manipulatives like cubes or colored chips to help kids learn new concepts. (See more examples of multisensory math techniques.)

Some classrooms may have an interactive whiteboard. On it, kids can use their fingers to write, erase and move images around on the large screen. This teaching tool can also be used to turn students’ work into a video, which can be exciting for kids and help keep them engaged.

2: Supportive Teaching Strategies

In an inclusive classroom, teachers weave in specially designed instruction and support that can help students make progress. Kids may be given opportunities to move around or use fidgets. And teachers often put positive behavioral interventions and supports(PBIS) in place.

These strategies are helpful for all students—not only for students with learning and attention issues.

3: Reduced Stigma

Inclusive classrooms are filled with diverse learners. That lets kids talk about how everyone learns in their own way. They may find that they have more in common with other kids than they thought. This can go a long way in reducing stigma for kids with learning and attention issues. It can also help kids build and maintain friendships.

4: Effective Use of Resources

In more traditional special education settings, many kids are “pulled out” for related services, like speech therapy or for other specialized instruction. An inclusion class often brings speech therapists, reading specialists and other service providers into the classroom.

These professionals can provide information and suggestions to help all students. If your child isn’t eligible for special education, but still needs some extra support, it can provide him with some informal support.

5: High Expectations for All

If your child has an Individualized Education Program (IEP), his goals should be based on the academic standards for your state. Those standards lay out what all students are expected to learn in math, reading, science and other subjects by the end of the school year.

Differentiated instruction and co-teaching in a general education classroom make it easier for students with standards-based IEPs to be taught the same material as their classmates.

In some schools, only certain classrooms are inclusion classes. In that case, schools may assign general education students randomly to inclusive or non-inclusive classes. Other schools may choose students who benefit from the emphasis on meeting the needs of all learners at all ability levels.

Talk to your child’s school about the supports and services that might be available in an inclusion classroom. Learn more about teaching strategies that work well for students with learning and attention issues. And read about the various models of collaborative 

The Importance of Inclusive Education In The Classroom

There are several benefits of including special need students in the classroom with other students.  Research-based evidence on the importance of Inclusive education has become significant over the years, and it has, therefore, become a vital system that should be included in the classroom.  Below are eight Importance of Inclusive Education; 

·        Development of a positive perception of themselves and others

Attending classroom settings that depict the true nature of the similarities and differences that exist in the world helps children appreciate diversity. It is essential that a child’s education introduces him/her to the reality of the world out there beyond the walls of just an academic environment. Playing and learning alongside with other children of different cultures and abilities assist children to grow in understanding people that are unique in skills due to physical, social or other challenges. The culture of respect for one another also grows when children are allowed to play with one another without segregation.

·         Healthy Friendship development

Asides from the academic education and learning made available to children in school, friendships are developed, and social skills learnt.  Allowing special needs children to mix with other children in the school setting makes them feel included, and this expands their network of friends. 

In 2016, about 7 million children were reported to be out of school because of their inability to access primary education due to disability state according to vanguard news. The design and management of primary and secondary schools in Nigeria are reportedly non-inclusive and inaccessible to children with disabilities. The article reported that 7 million children make up more than 50% of over 10 million children out of school in Nigeria. Education is a basic need and right for every child. It is supposed to be available to every child regardless of their physical or social limitations. Therefore, the introduction of inclusive learning in the classroom is a necessity and not just a minor additional feature in the policies governing the management of schools in Nigeria.

This article aims to discuss the importance of inclusive education in the classroom. It will define inclusive education, features and ways to include inclusive education in the classroom and the benefits of inclusion education.

• Realisation of parent’s dreams

Every parent wants their child to be happy and accepted by their peers, have a healthy life and education. Allowing a child with the special need to interact and learn with other students in the school positively improves their academic performance, their personality and the expectations of the parents. Introducing inclusive education in the classroom will reduce stigmatisation and help such children attain their highest heights.

• Parental Involvement in Education

Introducing Inclusive education into the classroom encourages parents to be actively involved in their child’s education and other school activities. Parents love to witness the performance of their children during events such as debate, quiz competition, sports and other programs. It also drives a higher commitment to the school by the parents as they become more involved in the school program.

Here are 20 Things Every Parent of Kids with Special Needs Should Hear.

• A basis for an Inclusive society

A society that embraces and integrates an inclusive education will naturally introduce the same culture of inclusion in its concepts of civic participation, employability and community relationships. The seeds of inclusion need to be planted in the young so that they will learn the values, skills and knowledge to include others who are different from them. That’s the basis of our future society. Those with special needs can become pioneers of public projects and programs.

• A broader range of learning methods

An Inclusive education system makes teachers and staff flexible when it comes to preparing their teaching and instructional materials. The use of non-traditional resources like videos, audio, kinesthetic and even multimedia can be employed to make learning more accessible and exciting. By doing this, even students without disabilities learn faster too.

• Better Academic performance

Research has shown that students learning together in the classroom improves academic excellence. Students set higher expectations for themselves due to the presence of others with diverse abilities. Students with disabilities challenge themselves to perform optimally like their classmates, while other students also spontaneously set a high standard for themselves. As educators, we won’t know what gifts are hidden in our students until we unwrap them.

Most successful teachers of inclusion classes have found that when they teach basic skills within the context of meaningful lessons, all students can achieve higher- level learning. Such lessons stimulate critical thinking and motivate students to make personal connections with the material.

• Development of leadership skills

Students in an inclusive education environment naturally learn to take up the responsibility of caring for one another. There are situations where students stand up and speak up to protect their friends who are bullied. This naturally can lead to a leadership skill.  The school environment also encourages self-discovery as students with diverse abilities find themselves performing roles and functions they usually would not be exposed to if they had been separated.

To fully implement inclusive learning in the classroom there should be a development of a culture of acceptance, understanding and giving equal attention to the diversities and differences of all the students in the school.  Here are some of the essential elements that characterise inclusive education; 

·       The use of a broader range of instructional materials, teaching aids and models:

The purpose of contemporary tools such as interactive whiteboards, videos, audio lessons and multimedia tools are often associated with higher student engagement.  A lot of times, teachers also employ the use of groupings to carry out academic exercise in the classroom. Often the groups are shuffled just to allow all students to relate to each other and carry out the task assigned to them.  Teachers lead group task in the cases of younger age students (preschool or elementary ) or driven by a student when dealing with older children (Secondary school)

·       Inclusive academic curriculum

The same learning goals drive the learning experience of every student. The content of the school academic program is such that gives equal opportunity for all the students to participate in all school educational activities at the same pace of progress. Educators consider students with disabilities before creating the school curriculum. They do this to allow all students to have equal access to instructions and opportunities to participate in learning activities. Such curriculum makes provision for students with special needs to be given attention without pulling them out in the middle of lessons and making their differences noticed.

·       Parental Involvement

 Parents participation in the education of the child in an inclusive system can ultimately define its success. Inclusive education involves coming up with innovative and strategic methods of getting parents involved and noticed by children in the learning process. The process of creating educational contents and other learning activities in an inclusive system ensures a significant contribution of parents through the planning stage.

·       Building Relationships 

 It is the responsibility of the teachers to connect with all the students in the classroom. Speaking to your students one on one are great ways to start building relationship. By taking some extra time and effort to view each pupil as an individual and truly believing that each student can succeed, you’ll become partners in their success.

Finally, it is important not to forget that their are extreme cases where special need children act out in the classroom and as such they might require one on one supervision. In this case, the service of a special educator is needed to support the children in a well groomed learning environment.

Reference

Acedo, C. (n.d.) Interview with the UNESCO-IBE Director. United Nations Educational, scientific and cultural Organisation. Retrieved from: http://unesco.org.pk/education/icfe/resources/res41.pdf

Singh, J. D. (2016)  Inclusive Education In India –  Concept, Need And Challenges. Scholarly Research Journal for Humanity Sciences & English Language  Vol 3(13). Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/22128001/INCLUSIVE_EDUCATION_IN_INDIA_CONCEPT_NEED_AND_CHALLENGES

Greenspring Schools (2018). The Importance Of Inclusive Education In The Classroom. Retrieved from http://enrol.greenspringsschool.com/the-importance-of-inclusive-education-in-the-classroom/

Down Syndrome South Africa Retrieved from http://www.downsyndrome.org.za/main.aspx?artid=25

Understood.org USA LLC. 5 Benefits of Inclusion Classrooms. Retrieved from https://www.understood.org/en/learning-attention-issues/treatments-approaches/educational-strategies/5-benefits-of-inclusion-classrooms

Course: BED 102 Contemporary Indian education, Gender and Society

Addressing Gender Equality with Teaching Strategies

The best educational environments are those that are fair to all students, male or female.

But in many places around the world, female and male students do not always have the same chances for a good education. In today’s teaching tips, we will discuss supporting gender equality in the classroom. We also will discuss how to create a more equal and balanced learning environment.

​Helping future generations

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) says access to a good education is important for getting out of poverty.

An educated individual is more likely to grow up healthy and have more opportunities for employment. This increases their chance of raising healthy children, and supporting them to also get an education. When all students, both male and female, have equal access to educational opportunities, the results impact future generations.

Creating more equal educational opportunities for students begins in the classroom and with the teacher. A strong teacher is one who treats their students fairly and creates an environment where students feel equally able to take part.

1. Tips for learning environments

Teachers can create the appearance of gender bias through unintentional, nonverbal actions. The first step to correcting this problem is to organize your classroom in a way that makes all students feel equal.

• Establish rules

It is important for a teacher to establish a set of rules from the very beginning that promote equality. An effective way to do this is to create class rules with students. Ask students to suggest ideas for how to keep an equal and respectful classroom.

This permits the teacher to point to the rules as something that the whole class has agreed on. It is important to include rules that deal with respecting students, respecting the teacher and participating in class.

• Have a classroom seating plan that supports equal participation.

If you find that certain students, regardless of their gender, are not participating in class, try to change your class seating plan. For example, try having students who usually sit in the back come to the front.

Teachers tend to interact the most with students sitting closest to them. For this reason, it is important to change the seating order (if possible) to give all students a chance to sit near the teacher.

• Have equal academic and behavior expectations for all students

Teachers should try to avoid making things easier for either male or female students by giving them easier questions in class, or trying to solve things for the students.

Doing this can create the perception that certain students are not as smart as others. Teachers should hold the same expectations of all students.

• Use group work

Often there will be some students, male or female, who are not comfortable speaking in front of large classes. But, they may feel more comfortable speaking in small groups. In order to give all students the opportunity to take part in class, try doing some activities in small groups of three to four students.​

2. Tips for classroom strategies

After organizing your class in a way that promotes equality, the next step is to consider the effects of your actions in class.

• Addressing students equally

One of the main opportunities students have to participate in class is when they are answering teachers’ questions. Teachers need to call on or talk to both female and male students in a balanced way. Research shows that both male and female teachers often call on male students to speak in class more often than female students.

• Provide enough wait time to answer questions.

Some students, male or female, may need time to think about the answer to a question when called on by a teacher. When calling on students who seem to wait longer to answer a question, make sure to give students at least four to five seconds. Research shows that giving students more time to answer will increase the number of students who participate.

• Use gender neutral language

Sometimes in English people use male pronouns when referring to a group. But, this can make female students feel left out. Teachers should use gender neutral pronouns whenever possible. One example is, instead of saying “guys” when referring to a class or group (which is common in American English), say “everybody” or “everyone.”

• Body language

Teachers may not realize that their body language with female students might be different from what it is with male students.

Whenever male or female students are talking, use respectful, listening body language. Face the listener, do not walk away, and do not interrupt students.

Also the teacher can move to different areas of the classroom while speaking. This is important because students sitting further from the teacher tend to participate less.

• Discipline

Be aware when male students insult female students, or female students insult male students.

If the insults appear to be gender-based, students may be discouraged from participating in class in the future. Be quick to intervene and discipline the students making insults. This shows students of either gender that they will be supported.

However it is important that both male and female students are given the same discipline for the same actions.

These strategies will help teachers create a more equal classroom environment for their students. They will also help teachers effectively manage their classrooms. Remember: The best form of teaching is the fairest form of teaching!

Reference:

·       https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/promoting-gender-equality-with-teaching-strategies/3986846.html

·       http://cte.virginia.edu/resources/teaching-a-diverse-student-body-practical-strategies-for-enhancing-our-students-learning/gender-dynamics-in-the-classroom/teaching-to-promote-gender-equality/

Modern Management Theory

Management is one or the other form has existed in every nook and corner of the world since the dawn of civilization. Modern Management has grown with the growth of social-economics and scientific institution. Modern view consists that a worker does not work for only money. They work for their satisfaction and happiness with good living style. Here Non- financial award is most important factor.

Modern management theories started after 1950s. Modern management theory focuses the development of each factor of workers and organization. Modern management theory refers to emphasizing the use of systematic mathematical techniques in the system with analyzing and understanding the inter-relationship of management and workers in all aspect.

 It has following three Streams-

• Quantitative Approach
• System Approach
• Contingency Approach

Fayol’s Principles of Management

In the development of classical school of management thought, Fayol’s administrative theory provides an important link. While Taylor succeeded in revolutionising the working of factory shop-floor in terms of devising the best method, fair day’s work, differential piece-rate system and functional foremanship; Henri Fayol explained what amounts to a managers work and what principles should be followed in doing this work. If workers’ efficiency mattered in the factory system, so does the managerial efficiency.

 Fayol’s contribution must be interpreted in terms of the impact that his writings had and continue to have improvement in managerial efficiencies. Henri Fayol (1841-1925) was a French management theorist whose theories concerning scientific organisation of labour were widely influential in the beginning of twentieth century. He graduated from the mining academy of St. Etienne in 1860 in mining engineering. The 19 year old engineer started at the mining company ‘Compagnie de commentary-FourchambeanDecazeville, ultimately acting as its managing director from 1888 to 1918.

His theories deal with organisation of production in the context of a competitive enterprise that has to control its production costs. Fayol was the first to identify four functions of management – Planning, Organising, Directing and Controlling although his version was a bit different – Plan, Organise, Command, Coordinate and Control. According to Fayol, all activities of an industrial undertaking could be divided into: Technical; Commercial; Financial; Security; Accounting and Managerial. He also suggested that qualities a manager must possess should be — Physical, Moral, Education, Knowledge and experience. He believed that the number of management principles that might help to improve an organisation’s operation is potentially limitless.

Based largely on his own experience, he developed his concept of administration. The 14 principles of management propounded by him were discussed in detail in his book published in 1917, ‘Administration industrielle et generale’. It was published in English as ‘General and Industrial Management’ in 1949 and is widely considered a foundational work in classical management theory.

For his contribution he is also known as the ‘Father of General Management’.

 The 14 principles of management given by him are:

(i) Division of Work: Work is divided into small tasks/jobs. A trained specialist who is competent is required to perform each job. Thus, division of work leads to specialization. According to Fayol, “The intent of division of work is to produce more and better work for the same effort. Specialization is the most efficient way to use human effort.” In business work can be performed more efficiently if it is divided into specialized tasks; each performed by a specialist or trained employee. This results in efficient and effective output. Thus, in a company we have separate departments for finance, marketing, production and human resource development etc. All of them have specialised persons. Collectively they achieve production and sales targets of the company. Fayol applies this principle of division of work to all kinds of work – technical as well as managerial. You can observe this principle at work in any organisation like hospital or even a government office.

(ii) Authority and Responsibility: According to Fayol, “Authority is the right to give orders and obtain obedience, and responsibility is the corollary of authority. The two types of authority are official authority, which is the authority to command, and personal authority which is the authority of the individual manager.” Authority is both formal and informal. Managers require authority commensurate with their responsibility. There should be a balance between authority and responsibility. An organisation should build safeguards against abuse of managerial power. At the same time a manager should have necessary authority to carry out his responsibility. For example, a sales manager has to negotiate a deal with a buyer. She finds that if she can offer credit period of 60 days she is likely to clinch the deal which is supposed to fetch the company net margin of say Rs. 50 crores. Now the company gives power to the manager to offer a credit period of only 40 days. This shows that there is an imbalance in authority and responsibility. In this case the manager should be granted authority of offering credit period of 60 days in the interest of the company. Similarly, in this example this manager should not be given a power to offer a credit period of say 100 days because it is not required. A manager should have the right to punish a subordinate for wilfully not obeying a legitimate order but only after sufficient opportunity has been given to a subordinate for presenting her/his case.

(iii) Discipline: Discipline is the obedience to organisational rules and employment agreement which are necessary for the working of the organisation. According to Fayol, discipline requires good superiors at all levels, clear and fair agreements and judicious application of penalties. Suppose management and labour union have entered into an agreement whereby workers have agreed to put in extra hours without any additional payment to revive the company out of loss. In return the management has promised to increase wages of the workers when this mission is accomplished. Here discipline when applied would mean that the workers and management both honour their commitments without any prejudice towards one another.

(iv) Unity of Command: According to Fayol there should be one and only one boss for every individual employee. If an employee gets orders from two superiors at the same time the principle of unity of command is violated. The principle of unity of command states that each participant in a formal organisation should receive orders from and be responsible to only one superior. Fayol gave a lot of importance to this principle. He felt that if this principle is violated “authority is undermined, discipline is in jeopardy, order disturbed and stability threatened”. The principle resembles military organisation. Dual subordination should be avoided. This is to prevent confusion regarding tasks to be done. Suppose a sales person is asked to clinch a deal with a buyer and is allowed to give 10% discount by the marketing manager. But finance department tells her/him not to offer more than 5% discount. Now there is no unity of command. This can be avoided if there is coordination between various departments.

(v) Unity of Direction: All the units of an organisation should be moving towards the same objectives through coordinated and focussed efforts. Each group of activities having the same objective must have one head and one plan. This ensures unity of action and coordination. For example, if a company is manufacturing motorcycles as well as cars then it should have two separate divisions for both of them. Each division should have its own incharge, plans and execution resources. On no account should the working of two divisions overlap. Now let us differentiate between the two principles of unity of command and unity of direction.

(vi) Subordination of Individual Interest to General Interest: The interests of an organisation should take priority over the interests of any one individual employee according to Fayol. Every worker has some individual interest for working in a company. The company has got its own objectives. For example, the company would want to get maximum output from its employees at a competitive cost (salary). On the other hand, an employee may want to get maximum salary while working the least. In another situation an individual employee may demand some concession, which is not admissible to any other employee like working for less time. In all the situations the interests of the group/company will supersede the interest of any one individual. This is so because larger interests of the workers and stakeholders are more important than the interest of any one person. For example, interests of various stakeholders i.e., owners, shareholders, creditors, debtors, financers, tax authorities, customers and the society at large cannot be sacrificed for one individual or a small group of individuals who want to exert pressure on the company. A manager can ensure this by her/his exemplary behaviour. For example, she/he should not fall into temptation of misusing her/his powers for individual/ family benefit at the cost of larger general interest of the workers/ company. This will raise her/his stature in the eyes of the workers and at the same time ensure same behaviour by them.

(vii) Remuneration of Employees: The overall pay and compensation should be fair to both employees and the organisation. The employees should be paid fair wages, which should give them at least a reasonable standard of living. At the same time it should be within the paying capacity of the company. In other words, remuneration should be just and equitable. This will ensure congenial atmosphere and good relations between workers and management. Consequently, the working of the company would be smooth.

(viii)Centralisation and Decentralisation: The concentration of decision-making authority is called centralisation whereas its dispersal among more than one person is known as decentralisation. According to Fayol, “There is a need to balance subordinate involvement through decentralisation with managers’ retention of final authority through centralisation.” The degree of centralisation will depend upon the circumstances in which the company is working. In general large organisations have more decentralisation than small organisations. For example, panchayats in our country have been given more powers to decide and spend funds granted to them by the government for the welfare of villages. This is decentralisation at the national level.

(ix) Scalar Chain: An organisation consists of superiors and subordinates. The formal lines of authority from highest to lowest ranks are known as scalar chain. According to Fayol, “Organisations should have a chain of authority and communication that runs from top to bottom and should be followed by managers and the subordinates.” Let us consider a situation where there is one head ‘A’ who has two lines of authority under her/ him. One line consists of B-CD-E-F. Another line of authority under ‘A’ is L-M-N-O-P. If ‘E’ has to communicate with ‘O’ who is at the same level of authority then she/he has to traverse the route E-D-C-B-A-L-M-N-O. This is due to the principle of scalar chain being followed in this situation. According to Fayol, this chain should not be violated in the normal course of formal communication. However, if there is an emergency then ‘E’ can directly contact ‘O’ through ‘Gang Plank’ as shown in the diagram. This is a shorter route and has been provided so that communication is not delayed. In practice you find that a worker cannot directly contact the CEO of the company. If at all she/he has to, then all the formal levels i.e., foreman, superintendent, manager, director etc have to know about the matter. However, in an emergency it can be possible that a worker can contact CEO directly. 

(ix) Scalar Chain: An organisation consists of superiors and subordinates. The formal lines of authority from highest to lowest ranks are known as scalar chain. According to Fayol, “Organisations should have a chain of authority and communication that runs from top to bottom and should be followed by managers and the subordinates.” Let us consider a situation where there is one head ‘A’ who has two lines of authority under her/ him. One line consists of B-CD-E-F. Another line of authority under ‘A’ is L-M-N-O-P. If ‘E’ has to communicate with ‘O’ who is at the same level of authority then she/he has to traverse the route E-D-C-B-A-L-M-N-O. This is due to the principle of scalar chain being followed in this situation. According to Fayol, this chain should not be violated in the normal course of formal communication. However, if there is an emergency then ‘E’ can directly contact ‘O’ through ‘Gang Plank’ as shown in the diagram. This is a shorter route and has been provided so that communication is not delayed. In practice you find that a worker cannot directly contact the CEO of the company. If at all she/he has to, then all the formal levels i.e., foreman, superintendent, manager, director etc have to know about the matter. However, in an emergency it can be possible that a worker can contact CEO directly.

(x) Order: According to Fayol, “People and materials must be in suitable places at appropriate time for maximum efficiency.” The principle of order states that ‘A place for everything (everyone) and everything (everyone) in its (her/his) place’. Essentially it means orderliness. If there is a fixed place for everything and it is present there, then there will be no hindrance in the activities of business/ factory. This will lead to increased productivity and efficiency.

(xi) Equity: Good sense and experience are needed to ensure fairness to all employees, who should be treated as fairly as possible,” according to Fayol. This principle emphasises kindliness and justice in the behaviour of managers towards workers. This will ensure loyalty and devotion. Fayol does not rule out use of force sometimes. Rather he says that lazy personnel should be dealt with sternly to send the message that everyone is equal in the eyes of the management. There should be no discrimination against anyone on account of sex, religion, language, caste, belief or nationality etc. In practice we can observe that now a days in multinational corporations people of various nationalities work together in a discrimination free environment. Equal opportunities are available for everyone in such companies to rise. Thus, we find Indiaborn CEO’s such as Rajat Gupta who heads multinational like Mckinsey Inc. Lately India-born American Arun Sarin has become CEO of Vodaphone limited, a British telecom major.

(xii) Stability of Personnel: “Employee turnover should be minimised to maintain organisational efficiency”, according to Fayol. Personnel should be selected and appointed after due and rigorous procedure. But once selected they should be kept at their post/ position for a minimum fixed tenure. They should have stability of tenure. They should be given reasonable time to show results. Any adhocism in this regard will create instability/insecurity among employees. They would tend to leave the organisation. Recruitment, selection and training cost will be high. So stability in tenure of personnel is good for the business.

(xiii)Initative: Workers should be encouraged to develop and carry out their plans for improvements according to Fayol. Initiative means taking the first step with self-motivation. It is thinking out and executing the plan. It is one of the traits of an intelligent person. Initiative should be encouraged. But it does not mean going against the established practices of the company for the sake of being different. A good company should have an employee suggestion system whereby initiative/ suggestions which result in substantial cost/time reduction should be rewarded.

(xiv) Espirit De Corps: Management should promote a team spirit of unity and harmony among employees, according to Fayol. Management should promote teamwork especially in large organisations because otherwise objectives would be difficult to realise. It will also result in a loss of coordination. A manager should replace ‘I’ with ‘We’ in all his conversations with workers to foster team spirit. This will give rise to a spirit of mutual trust and belongingness among team members. It will also minimise the need for using penalties.

From the foregoing discussion it is clear that Fayol’s 14 principles of management are widely applicable to managerial problems and have cast a profound impact on management thinking today. But with the change of environment in which business is done, the interpretation of these principles has changed. For example, authority and responsibility meant empowering of managers but now it means empowerment of employees because of flat organisational structures that are gaining ground. We are now in a position to understand the current connotations of Fayol’s principles discussed in the accompanying box.