Unit: 1 Management as Process

 Management as a Process

As a process, management refers to a series of inter-related functions. It is the process by which management creates, operates and directs purposive organization through systematic, coordinated and co-operated human efforts. According to George R. Terry, “Management is a distinct process consisting of planning, organizing, actuating and controlling, performed to determine and accomplish stated objective by the use of human beings and other resources”. As a process, management consists of three aspects:

1. Management is a social process - Since human factor is most important among the other factors, therefore management is concerned with developing relationship among people. It is the duty of management to make interaction between people - productive and useful for obtaining organizational goals.

2. Management is an integrating process - Management undertakes the job of bringing together human physical and financial resources so as to achieve organizational purpose. Therefore, is an important function to bring harmony between various factors.

3. Management is a continuous process - It is a never ending process. It is concerned with constantly identifying the problem and solving them by taking adequate steps. It is an on-going process.

Meaning of Management Processes 

Management processes are those processes which are performed by managers. We invariably come across managers who are involved in planning, organizing, directing, motivating, controlling and decision-making. These processes are also called organizational processes because they go beyond an individual manager and affect the entire organization. 

We are well aware that teachers cany out their work on a day-to-day basis in conditions of endless variety, disturbances and sometimes even unpredictability. Let us take the example of a teacher's typical functions which could be that she/he formulates a plan of action (for carrying out instructions) of a year, a month or a day, organizes a debate in a class, motivates learners by giving positive reinforcement on their efforts, decides on the audio-visual aids to be used while teaching a particular topic, directs students for assignments and projects, and measures and monitors performances of students and takes corrective action as and when required. 

If we examine the above list closely, we can easily conclude that the above functions involve, directly or indirectly, basic management processes i.e. planning, organizing, motivating, decisiop-making, directing and monitoring. These are the various management processes which are undertaken in school and in the absence of which no school can function effectively. Now let us study in detail these management processes and their importance in a school setting. 

Different Management Processes in the School 

1) Planning 

Importance of planning in schools has been generally recognized by all. Without planning there is very little scope for intelligent and directed activity. Planning is an essential component of any kind of meaningful activityto take place in a classroom or outside. As teachers, we need to understand that there has to be a systematic, organized and an articulated scheme ofworking. Although planning may not be a solution for all foreseeable and unforeseeable problems, it is an extremely useful exercise to be undertaken by all teachers. 

Planning can be thought of at the beginning of the week, or the day, to list things that they have to do and spend some time thinking about the actions to be taken, problems to be solved, decisions'to bkmade, and the relative priorities that should be attached to these activities. 

Some of the planning activities which teachers carry out are: 

i) planning on what to teach and how to teach the content 

ii) lesson planning 

iii) planning out co-curricular activities for the semester or annually, and 

iv) allocating the emphasis to be given to unit/topic/lesson, i.e. whether the topic has to be dealt with in detail or cursorily. 

Organization 

Organising refers to the formal groupiilg of people and activities to facilitate achievement of the institute objectives. Schools have to develop as an organization where work gets done effectively and efficiently. This means responsibilities have to be defined and relationships have to be developed. The essential element is people: what they do and how they work together. In the present times, fluidity and flexibility are becoming increasingly the norms for organization. Therefore, schools can no longer remain static institutions. In spite of the fact that a teacher is in a constant state of flux, he/ she has very little scope to organize or reorganize the school . But this may not always be true as there is usually some room for reallocating responsibilities in relation to changing circumstances. 

In determining a teacher's responsibility for organizing any activity in a school, the basic elements to be considered are to : 

i) define the purpose and objectives, 

ii) analyse and identify activities or tasks required to meet these objectives, 

iii) allocate .related activities to individuals, 

iv) group related activities logically, 

v) provide for management and co-ordination of activities at each level of responsibility, and 

vi) establish a reporting and communication channel. 

 In order to have further clarity on this approach to organization, we can take the example of a teacher who is incharge of organizing a cultural programme for the school annual day. 

The organization of the activity would involve: 

i) determining the nature and sequence of various activities, 

ii) defining the role of different teachers incharge of different items for the programme, 

iii) defining the role of students who are directly participating in any item, 

iv) dividing the school into primary, secondary and higher secondary levels and defining the responsibility of the supervisors at each level, 

v) deciding on the school staff required and help from community, office staff, principal, vice-principal, paf-ents, industry, etc., and 

vi) establishing a basis for co-ordinating and controlling operations through regular meetings and reporting systems.

Direction

Direction is an important function of management and other processes like planning, organizing etc., will not succeed if proper direction is not there. Direction involves getting the work done through instructions and orders. For getting the work done individuals have to be supervised, motivated and communicated with. The ultimate aim is to see that work is accomplished according to policies and programme and given instructions. To realise the goals of an organization, communication has to be in a language which is unambiguous and cieady understood. Adequate guidelines have to be provided to get the work completed in time. 

Teachers who are employed in schools with a view to achieving'objectives which will contribute to the attainment of the overall mission and goals of the organization. To do this they have to direct operations and therefore individuals (which includes pupils) towards meeting these requirements. Providing a sense of direction is a key managerial task to which we also have to add motivation to ensyre that people move towards the desired goals. Directing invoIves exercising leadership motivating people, determining accountability and developing guidelines for action. For example, if a group of students is going on a botanical study tour, the objectives will not be met unless the teacher gives proper direction which includes the above components.  

Controlling 

Controlling involves rneasuring and monitoring performance, comparing results with plans and taking corrective action when required. It indicates how far the goals have been achieved and to what extent there is deviation from the plans. The basis of control is. measurement. It depends on accurate information and feedback about what is happening compared with what should be happening. In other words, we can say that control deals with the difference between planned and actual performance. 

As a teacher you will be given total responsibility for all that happens within your command. You cannot delegate that responsibility; in fact you will have to try and monitor everything that goes on the classroom and outside. 

Monitoring performance of your pupils will be your main responsibility. In order to exercise effective control teachers need to: 

i) plan what they aim to achieve, 

ii) measure regularly what has been achieved, 

iii) compare actual achievements with the plan, 

iv) take collective measures to ensure that deviations do not take place, 

v) take actiop to improve performance. 

On an individual basis also, teachers need to monitor their own performance against objectives or standards that have been set for them. 

Decision making

Decision-making is an essential function of management. Decision-making is defined as the selection of one course of action from two or more alternative courses of action. Thus decisionmaking actually means choosing behveen alternatives. George Terry defines it "as the selection based on certain criteria to select one appropriate alternative out of two or more alternatives". The Webster dictionary defines it "as the opinion framed in ones own mind to take a particular course of action". Decision-making is actually a part of problem-solving. There would be no decision for teachers to make if there were no problems. 

On making a decision, the matter is closed. The decision also serves as a rule for the future. Deciding implies that we make a choice from several ofmany possibilities. It is the determining ofwhat is to be done ratherthan actual doing. It is the process of choice whichleads to action. A teacher makes a number of decisions in hisher different spheres of activity. For example, each time a teacher chooses a particular methodology to teach a specific content matter, he is taking a decision. The decision-making power for teachers has a special significance. In fact, as teachers it is impossible for us to imagine what would happen in the absence of decision-making. It would undoubtedly lead to chaos and confusion and duplication of efforts. Decision-making'controls the entire activity of an organization and lends clarity to different tasks to be carried out. 

Motivation

Motivation plays a major role if we want people to move in the right direction and do what they are expected to do. A teacher in a classroom can get any work completed to satisfaction if learners are adequately motivated. A teacher has not only to motivate students who have a low level of  interest but also has to nurture the interest of the already motivated learners. 

A teacher can achieve this by: 

i) adopting a positive attitude towards learners instead of a fault finding one, 

ii) giving positive reinforcement i.e. appreciation and encouragement, 

iii) making academic and non-academic activities in a classroom relevant, meaningful and joyful, 

iv) giving assignments and project work to students of different abilities and potentials so that they can work at their individual pace, 

v) involving students in discussion and in activities that call for collaboration, co-operation and communication among students, 

vi) responding to student queries and problems in an encouraging manner, and 

vii) making the teaching-learning process an experimental one, so that learners can identify with what is happening outside the classroom.

Reference:

1) https://managementstudyguide.com/management_process.htm

2) https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/47002/1/Unit-9.pdf

3) https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/13280/1/Unit-3.pdf

Tyloriasm: Scientific Management

Classical Approach to Management Theory: Scientific Management

Introduction

Scientific Management became increasingly popular in the early lgth century. Scientific management has been defined as "that kind of management which conducts a business or affairs by standards established, by facts or truths gained through systematic observation, experiment or researching". In other words, it is a classical management approach that emphasizes the scientific study of work methods to improve the efficiency of the workers. Some of the earliest advocates of scientific management were Fredrick W. Taylor (1 856-191 5), Frank Gilbreth (1 868-1924), Lillian Gilbreth (1 878-1972) and Henry (1 861-1919). Taylor (1 856-191 5) felt that tlie soldering problems could be eliminated by developing a science of management. Scientific management approach uses scientific methods to determine how a task should be done instead of depending on the previous experiences of the concerned worker. Table given below presents the steps in scientific management.

Steps Involved in Scientific Management

Step - 1 Develop a science for each element of the job to replace old rule of the methods. 

Step - 2 Scientifically select employees and then train them to do the job as described in step- 1. 

Step - 3 Supervise employees to make sure they follow the prescribedmethods for performing their jobs.

Step - 4 Continue to plan the work but use workers to actually get the work done. 

In essence, scientific management as propounded by Taylor (1 856- 19 15) emphasizes: Need for developing a scientific way of performing each job; Training and preparing workers to perform that particular job; Establishing harmonious relations bettveen management and workers so that the job is performed in the desired way. .~~%o major managerial practices that emerged from Taylor's approach to management are: the piece-rate incentive system, and the time-and-motion study. 

Piece-rate incentive system: Taylor felt that the wage system was one of the major reasons for soldiering. To resolve this problem, he advocated the use of a piece-rate incentive system. The aiin of this system was to reward the workers who produced the maximum out-put. 

Time and motion Study: Taylor tried to determine the best way to perform each and every job. To do so, he introduced a method called ''time'-and-Motion" study in which jobs are broken down into various small tasks or motions and unnecessary motions are remo;ed to find out the best way of doing a job. After Taylor, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth made numerous contributions to the concepts of scientific management. Frank Gilbreth (1 868-1924) is considered the "father of motion study". Lillian Gilbreth (1878-1972) was associated with the research,pertaining to motion studies. 

Motion study involves finding out the best sequence and minimumnumber of motions needed to complete a task. Frank and Lillion were mainly involved in exploring neb ways for eliminating unnecessary motions and reducing work fatigue. 

Merits: 

The primary benefit of scientific management was conservation and proper use of every once energy. Moreover specialization and division of labour have brought about the second industrial revolution. Time and motion techniques are important tools to organize - the tasks in a more efficient and rational way. 

In short, scientific. management is not only a rational approach to solve organizational problems but it also 'faci1itatks";he profe~sionalisation of management. ' Although the basic principles of scientific management were originally developed by Taylor, several associates of Taylor like Gantt, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, and Emerson further elaborated the ideas, developed new techniques and improved upon the new approach to management. In practice, scientific management proved to be so fruitful in increasing and efficiency of operations that it was widely accepted in the USA and Western Europe. 

Limitations of Scientific Management: Scientific Management has provided many valuable insights into the development of management thought. In spite of the numerous contributions it made, there are a few limitations of scieqtific manageqent. 

These are as follows: 

* The principles of scientific management revolve round the problems at the operational level and do not focus on the management of an organization from a mangers.point of view. These principles~focus on the solutions of problems froin an engineering point of view. 

* The proponents of scientific management were of the opinion that people were rational and were motivated primarily by the desire for material gain. Taylor and his followers overlooked the social needs of workers and over emphasized their economic and physical needs. 

* Scientific Management theorists also ignored the human desire for job satisfaction. Since workers are more likely to go on strike over factors like working conditions and job content rather than salary, principles of scientific management, which were based on the "national worker" model, become increasingly ineffective. 

Principles of Scientific Management by Taylor:

F.W. Taylor or Fredrick Winslow Taylor, also known as the ‘Father of scientific management’ proved with his practical theories that a scientific method can be implemented to management. Taylor gave much concentration on the supervisory level of management and performance of managers and workers at an operational level. Let’s discuss in detail the five principles of management by F.W Taylor.

1. Science, not the Rule of Thumb-

This rule focuses on increasing the efficiency of an organisation through scientific analysis of work and not with the ‘Rule of Thumb’ method. Taylor believed that even a small activity like loading paper sheets into boxcars can be planned scientifically. This will save time and also human energy. This decision should be based on scientific analysis and cause and effect relationships rather than ‘Rule of Thumb’ where the decision is taken according to the manager’s personal judgement.

2. Harmony, Not Discord-

Taylor indicated and believed that the relationship between the workers and management should be cordial and completely harmonious. Difference between the two will never be beneficial to either side. Management and workers should acknowledge and understand each other’s importance. Taylor also suggested the mental revolution for both management and workers to achieve total harmony.

3. Mental Revolution-

This technique involves a shift of attitude of management and workers towards each other. Both should understand the value of each other and work with full participation and cooperation. The aim of both should be to improve and boost the profits of the organisation. Mental Revolution demands a complete change in the outlook of both the workers and management; both should have a sense of togetherness.

4. Cooperation, not Individualism-

It is similar to ‘Harmony, not discord’ and believes in mutual collaboration between workers and the management. Managers and workers should have mutual cooperation and confidence and a sense of goodwill. The main purpose is to substitute internal competition with cooperation.

5. Development of Every Person to his Greatest Efficiency-

The effectiveness of a company also relies on the abilities and skills of its employees. Thus, implementing training, learning best practices and technology, is the scientific approach to brush up the employee skill. To assure that the training is given to the right employee, the right steps should be taken at the time of selection and recruiting candidates based on a scientific selection.

Reference:

1) https://byjus.com/commerce/taylor-principles-of-scientific-management/

2) https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/13282/1/Unit-2.pdf

3) https://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/9173/1/Unit-14.pdf

Development of modern concept of Educational Management- Unit:1

 EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT THOUGHT

How to manage activities involving large number of people must have been known even in the ancient past. There are evidence all over the world about the practice of management since the dawn of civilisation. Without proper management it would have been impossible to undertake consrruction of the Egyptian pyramids, or the Great Wall and the irrigation canals of China. However, organised activities in earlier times mainly required engaging people for manual operations and getting work done under strict supervision. On the other hand, work in cottage industries which flourished during the middle ages mainly involved engagement of family members and apprentices and application of traditional skills with simple tools and implements. ' 

Far reaching changes took place in the organisation of economic activities with the industrial revolution at the turn of the 18th century. Scientific and technical inventions paved the way of large scale factories using mechanical power and employing hundreds Approaches to the Study of of people. The systems of transport and communication were also transformed in the ' Management process and enabled producers to undertake distribution of goods in ever widening markets. With the growth in size and increasing complexity of organisations, the nature and scope of managerial functioils have also undergone considerable changes. The task of management no longer consists of supervising simple operalions and taking routine . decisions. It involves procurement of physical, human and monetary resources as well as their effective use for achieving the organisational objectives. The process of management and the various functions involved have thus received increasing attention of management experts over time. 

Early Thinkers 

 Thinking on management as a separate field of learning and practice began early in the 19th centuiy. It was at this time that persons like Robert Owen, Charles Babbage, Metcalf and Towne expressed their ideas on the. ways and means of making management practices more effective and efficient. 

Robert Owen, who owned and managed several textile mills in Scotland, emphasised the importance of human relations in' management. He was very much against the existing practices of workers being employed in factories to perform manual work for as long as thirteen hours per day, employment of child workers even below the pge of ten, absence of housing facilities, etc. ltle introduced many reforn~s in his own factories, reducing working hours, improving working conditions providing housing facilities, and arranging ' supply of goods at cheaper rales through company stores. On the bisis of his own experience, he advocated that investment in human resources was more profitable than investmenl in nlachinery and other physical resomces. He, therefore, recorninended that indusrtialists should change their attitude towards the workers and devote more attention to their well-being. 

Charles Babbage was a professor at Cambridge. Having studied the management of factories in the United Kingdom and France, .he observed that einployees and owners were totally ignorant of the basic tools of scientific melhods, they were guided purely by tradition, estimates and imagination and the owner-managers never took decisions on the basis of factual analysis. According to Babbage, it is essential to apply scientific principles to work processes for increasing productivity and reducing expenses. In his writings, Babbage emphasised the importance of division of labour on the basis of skills, and also stressed the necessity of replacing manual operations by machinery. As the manager of an army arsenal, 

Henry Metcalf held the view that the science of adniinistralion ought to be based on principles evolved by recording observations and experiences. The art of management, according to him, should be based on accumulated observitions which are on record and are presented systematically. His book on cost of manufactures and administration of workshops suggested a iystem of control with the help of work records maintained in Time Cards and Material Cards and a method of automatic actions: Henry Robinson Townc was the chief execulive of a manufacture company. His contribution to management lay in defining the role of a manager as a combination of the roles of an administrator, an engineer, and R statistician. Management of industrial work, according to Towne, required combination of different qualities of good businessmen and good engineers. He succeeded in motivating engineers to study . management, and advised them to be cost-conscious. At the same time, he emphasised that the process of management has multiple dimensions and ehgineer-managers must be aware of it. 

Early thinker on management made an attempt to suggest improvements in the. functioning of manufacturing organisations by different means. In that process the thinkers also provided a new background for manageinen[ in practice. Growth of business and industry proceeded at a rapid pace in the Western European countries and the USA throughout,the 19th century, Increased competitiorr in the domestic and'intemational rnaikets during this period drew the attention of management towards the necessity of improving productivity and efficiency of theil undertakings.

Reference:

UNIT 2:  APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF MANAGEMENT https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/13282/1/Unit-2.pdf